Our Place in the Universe - II : The Scientific Approach to Discovery

"Starting from Newton's times this follow-up to the author's Springer book "Our Place in the Universe - Understanding Fundamental Astronomy from Ancient Discoveries" addresses the question of "Our place in the Universe" from astronomical, physical, chemical, biological, philosophical and social perspectives. Using the history of astronomy to illustrate the process of discovery, the emphasis is on the description of the process of how we learned and on the exploration of the impacts of discoveries rather than on the presentation of facts. Thus readers are informed of the influence of science on a broad scale. Unlike the traditional way of teaching science, in this book, the author begins by describing the observations and then discusses various attempts to find answers (including unsuccessful ones). The goal is to help students develop a better appreciation of the scientific process and learn from this process to tackle real-life problems."--Back cover Preface Prologue Contents About the Author List of Figures List of Tables Chapter 1: From Copernicus to Enlightenment 1.1 A Spherical Earth 1.2 The First Cosmological Models 1.3 Uneven Movements of the Sun and the Planets 1.4 The Copernican Model 1.5 Immutability of the Heavens 1.6 A Physical Universe 1.7 Social Implications of the Post-Renaissance Model of the Universe Chapter 2: Empirical Evidence for the Heliocentric Model 2.1 Empirical Evidence for the Rotation of the Earth 2.2 Finite Speed of Light 2.3 Search for Empirical Proof that the Earth Revolves Around the Sun 2.4 Shift of Stellar Position as the Result of Orbital Motion of the Earth 2.5 The Third Proof of the Earth ́s Revolution Around the Sun 2.6 A Long Journey from Theory to Confirmation Chapter 3: Resolution of the Theoretical Objections to the Heliocentric Theory 3.1 The Concept of Inertia 3.2 Why We Do Not Feel We Are Moving Around the Sun? 3.3 Why We Do Not Feel the Rotation of the Earth? 3.4 Evolution to a True Heliocentric Model 3.5 Artificial Satellites and Interplanetary Travel 3.6 Final Vindication of Copernicus 3.7 A Turning Point in Our View of the Universe Chapter 4: Size of the Solar System 4.1 How Fast Is Heaven Turning? 4.2 No More Points Of Light 4.3 How Far Are the Planets? 4.4 How Far Away Is the Sun? 4.5 A Changing Perception of the Size of the Solar System Chapter 5: Celestial Navigation and Exploration of the Heavens 5.1 The Longitude Problem 5.2 Stars Are Moving 5.3 The Solar System Is Moving 5.4 Unexpected Dividends 5.5 Cosmological Implications Chapter 6: New Members of the Solar System 6.1 The Origin of Comets 6.2 Discovery of Uranus 6.3 Prediction of Neptune 6.4 Search for Vulcan 6.5 Search for Planet X 6.6 Lesson to Be Learned Chapter 7: Is the Sun a Star? 7.1 Brightness Drop-Off with Distance 7.2 Distance to Stars 7.3 Are All Stars the Same? 7.4 Demotion of the Sun Chapter 8: A New Way of Thinking 8.1 The Scientific Method 8.2 Examples of Scientific Methods at Work 8.3 What Is a Good Scientific Theory? 8.4 How Do We Know that a Theory Is in Trouble? 8.5 What Is Not a Scientific Question? 8.6 Application of the Scientific Method to Other Disciplines 8.7 Limitations of Science Chapter 9: What Are Stars Made of? 9.1 Color of Sunlight and Physical Objects 9.2 Dark Lines in the Sun 9.3 Does the Sun Contain the Same Elements as Earth? 9.4 A New Element in the Sky 9.5 The Mystery of Nebulium 9.6 The Beginning of Astrophysics 9.7 Different Kinds of Stars 9.8 Unification of Matter in Heaven and on Earth Chapter 10: Origin of the Solar System 10.1 Formation of the Solar System 10.2 Extrasolar Planetary Systems 10.3 The Outer Solar System 10.4 The Question of Origins Chapter 11: The Plurality of Worlds 11.1 What Is the Milky Way? 11.2 Shape of the Milky Way 11.3 A Larger Universe 11.4 The Distance Problem 11.5 Removal of the Sun from the Center of the Milky Way 11.6 Philosophical Implications Chapter 12: The Nature of Nebulae 12.1 Discovery of Nonstellar Objects 12.2 The Mystery of Spiral Nebulae 12.3 Island Universes or Gaseous Nebulae? 12.4 The Resolution 12.5 Sun ́s Motion in the Milky Way 12.6 How Can Experts Be Wrong? 12.7 Evolution of Our Understanding of the Universe Chapter 13: Are All Motions Relative? 13.1 Principle of Relativity 13.2 The Need for a Fictitious Force 13.3 We Can Tell the Earth Is Rotating Without Looking Outside 13.4 Origin of the Inertial Force 13.5 Mathematical Formulation of the Principle of Relativity 13.6 Einstein ́s Theory of Gravity 13.7 No More Action at a Distance Chapter 14: The Nature of Light and Matter 14.1 Fundamental Elements of Terrestrial Matter 14.2 Building Blocks of Matter 14.3 The Confusion between Light and Heat 14.4 Expansion of the Concept of Color 14.5 Heat and Temperature 14.6 Everything Shines 14.7 The Search for Ether 14.8 Quantum Theory of Light and Matter 14.9 Science and Utility Chapter 15: The Human-Star Connection 15.1 What Powers the Sun? 15.2 Source of the Sun ́s Energy 15.3 Direct Confirmation of Nuclear Fusion in the Sun 15.4 The Solar Terrestrial Connection 15.5 Origin of Chemical Elements 15.6 Chemical Composition of the Human Body 15.7 Universality of Physics and Chemistry Chapter 16: Is the Universe Finite? 16.1 Looking Back into the Past 16.2 Expansion of the Universe 16.3 Large-Scale Structure of the Universe 16.4 The Beginning of Time 16.5 An Evolving Universe Chapter 17: Early History of the Earth 17.1 Methods of Age Determination 17.2 Radioactive Dating 17.3 A Physical Connection between Heaven and Earth 17.4 External Bombardment of the Early Earth 17.5 Formation of the Moon 17.6 Formation of the Ocean and the Atmosphere 17.7 The Complex History of the Earth Chapter 18: Common Ancestors 18.1 The Evolution of Living Species 18.2 Life Beyond What We Can See 18.3 A New Realm of Life 18.4 The Tree of Life 18.5 Social Implications of Darwinism Chapter 19: Origin of Life 19.1 Spontaneous Generation 19.2 Panspermia: Life from Elsewhere 19.3 Distinction Between Living and Non-living 19.4 Abiogenesis: A Chemical Origin of Life 19.5 Philosophy Guiding Science 19.6 Remaining Questions Chapter 20: Complexity in the Universe 20.1 Molecules and Solids in the Interstellar Medium 20.2 Minerals in Space 20.3 The Discovery of Extraterrestrial Organics 20.4 Abiotic Synthesis of Organics 20.5 Unsolved Mysteries 20.6 Extending the Frontiers of Exploration Chapter 21: Evolution of the Earth Through the Ages 21.1 The Continents Are Moving 21.2 The Oxygen Evolution 21.3 Life Explosion 21.4 Extinction Events 21.5 Emergence of Humans 21.6 Lessons from the History of Life on Earth Chapter 22: Climate Changes Through the Ages 22.1 Climate Cycles 22.2 The Warm Earth 22.3 Human-induced Climate Change 22.4 Effects of Climate on Society 22.5 Balance Between Development and Conservation Chapter 23: The Link Between Stars and Life on Earth 23.1 Lifetimes of Stars 23.2 Death of the Sun 23.3 The Final Fate of Stars 23.4 Stellar Synthesis of Complex Organics 23.5 Birth of New Stars and Planetary Systems from Stellar Debris 23.6 External Delivery of Organics to Earth and Their Effects on the Origin of Life 23.7 The Future of the Human Species Chapter 24: Life on Other Worlds 24.1 Conditions for Life 24.2 Search for Life in the Solar System 24.3 Search for Signs of Life on Other Planets in the Galaxy 24.4 Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 24.5 Direct Contact with Alien Life 24.6 Did Aliens Visit the Earth? 24.7 Different Paths of Scientific Development among Alien Civilizations 24.8 The Social Implication of Discovery of Extraterrestrial Life 24.9 Ethical Issues of Planetary Exploration and Engineering 24.10 Nonbiological Alien Life Chapter 25: Our Place in the Universe 25.1 Changing Spatial Scale of the Universe 25.2 On the Temporal Scale 25.3 On the Relative Scale 25.4 Constitution of Matter 25.5 The Role of Humans in the Universe 25.6 Looking into the Future by Learning from the Past Chapter 26: The Common Links in Our Journey 26.1 A 300-year Success Story 26.2 The Interdisciplinary Nature of Science 26.3 The Path to Discovery 26.4 The Human Aspects of Science 26.5 How Science Should Be Taught? 26.6 How Science Is Done 26.7 The Ethics of Science 26.8 Science and Technology 26.9 Science and Society 26.10 The Hidden Assumptions Behind Modern Science 26.11 Is There a Limit to Science? Appendix I. Brightest Stars in the Sky Appendix II. Units of Measurement Appendix III. Astronomical Measurements Appendix IV. Photometric Method to Estimate the Distances of Stars Appendix V. Mass of the Milky Way Appendix VI. Examples of Inertial Forces Appendix VII. Astronomy from Other Planetary Systems Review Exercises Glossary Further Reading Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 26 Index