Our Changing Climate : Introduction to Climate Science

Our Changing Introduction to Climate Science features an up-to-date comprehensive overview of the foundations of Earth's climate system, a greater focus on climate change issues, human and ecosystem vulnerabilities to climate change, energy and geopolitical issues and much more. It contains 14 chapters, each designed for one week of study. The textbook contains twenty Questions for Review and twelve Critical Thinking Questions per chapter. Contents Preface Acknowledgments PART 1: Defining Climate CHAPTER 1: EARTH’S CLIMATE AS A DYNAMIC SYSTEM Introduction Climate and Society The Importance of Climate Studies for Human Endeavors Human Vulnerability to Climate Importance of the Climate System A Changing Climate Climate Variability versus Climate Change Assessing Credible Climate Information Current Climate Paradigm Modes by which Climate is defined Climate System Atmosphere Hydrosphere Cryosphere Lithosphere Biosphere Carbon Cycle Chapter 1 Big Ideas CHAPTER 2: OBSERVING EARTH’S CLIMATE SYSTEM Introduction Essential Climate Variables Acquisition of ECVs Challenges in sampling ECVs Other ECV-related Indicators of Climate How and where we observe Earth’s Climate System Climate Observation Systems in the United States Atmospheric Sampling on Earth’s Surface Cataloging Observations in the Climate Record Who observes Earth’s Climate System? Stewardship and Service Climatology Climate Data Centers How observations of Earth’s Climate System are used and by whom Climate Scientists around the World Climate Modelers Climate Forecasters Private Sector Applications of Climate Observations Chapter 2 Big Ideas CHAPTER 3: TOOLS FOR INVESTIGATING EARTH’S CLIMATE Introduction Measures using Statistical Procedures Displays of Statistical Data Descriptive Statistics Central Tendency Dispersion Shape or Relative Position Expected Frequency Recurrence Interval Climate Normals GeoSpatial Analysis Geographic Information System (GIS) Climate Mapping Applied Climate Information System (ACIS) PRISM Project Climate Classification Techniques Köppen Classification Spatial Synoptic Classification (SSC) Chapter 3 Big Ideas PART II: Principles of Climatic Processes CHAPTER 4: RADIATION AND HEAT IN THE CLIMATE SYSTEM Introduction Energy and Entropy Types of Radiation Radiation Principles Greenhouse Effect Global Warming Global Radiation Budget Solar Radiation Traversing the Atmosphere Stratospheric Ozone Shield Earth’s Surface and Solar Radiation Heat Imbalance: Earth’s Atmosphere versus Earth’s Surface Thermal Energy across Space and Time Temperature and Heat Measuring Temperature and Heat Measuring Temperature Energy Considerations for the Sun and Earth Changes in Solar Altitude Earth’s Revolution and the Seasons The Solar Constant Transfer of Energy Electromagnetic Radiation Conduction and Convection Controls on Climate Characteristics Latitudinal Influences Clouds Surface Characteristics Air Mass Exchanges Ocean Circulation Chapter 4 Big Ideas CHAPTER 5: WATER IN EARTH’S CLIMATE SYSTEM Introduction Properties of Water in Earth’s Climate System Latent Heating Specific Heat Thermal Inertia Maritime and Continental Climates Global Water Cycle Global Water Budget Humidity and Saturation Vapor Pressure Saturated Air Relative Humidity Dewpoint Temperature Precipitable Water Saturation and Clouds Atmospheric Stability Types of Stability Clouds Mechanisms of Cloud Formation Fog Precipitation Types Monitoring Moisture in the Atmosphere Instrumental Arrays to Monitor Moisture Variability Snowfall Measures Remote Sensing of Precipitation Chapter 5 Big Ideas CHAPTER 6: GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION Introduction Forces that Act on Atmospheric Circulation Pressure Gradient Force Coriolis Force Friction Gravity Synergistic Forcing on Large Scale Wind Circulation Geostrophic Wind Gradient Winds Surface Winds in Cyclones and Anticyclones Monitoring Wind Circulations Wind Direction Wind Speed Winds Aloft Boundary Conditions Pressure Systems and Wind Belts Circulation Aloft Trade Wind Inversion Zonal and Meridional Flow Blocking Patterns and their Effects Connection from Winds Aloft to the Surface Supporting Processes Climatic Characteristics of Cyclones Climatically Favored Regions of Cyclogenesis Climatology of Cyclone Paths Chapter 6 Big Ideas CHAPTER 7: ATMOSPHERE-OCEAN RELATIONSHIPS Introduction Air-Sea Interactions Mean State of the Ocean Circulation Ekman Transport Upwelling and Downwelling Thermohaline Circulation El Niño, La Niña and the Southern Oscillation Historical Perspective Neutral Conditions in the Tropical Pacific El Niño (Warm Phase) La Niña (Cold Phase) Periodicity Monitoring ENSO Other Oscillations between the Atmosphere-Ocean North Atlantic Oscillation Arctic Oscillation Pacific Decadal Oscillation Madden-Julian Oscillation Monsoons Asian Monsoon Monsoon of the American Southwest Changing Ocean in a Changing Climate Ocean Warming Ocean as a Carbon Sink Ocean Acidification Sea-level Rise Chapter 7 Big Ideas PART III: Variability of Climate CHAPTER 8: NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC DRIVERS OF CLIMATE CHANGE Introduction Current State of the Climate System from the Instrumental Record Integrity of Instrument Data Lessons from Climate Data Natural Drivers of Climate Change Solar Changes Faint Young Sun Paradox Sunspots Maunder Minimum and the Little Ice Age Changes in Earth’s Orbit Milankovitch Cycles Evidence from Deep-Sea Sediment Cores Geologic Contributions Plate Tectonics Volcanoes Feedbacks Types of Feedbacks Snow and Ice Cover Shrinkage of Arctic Sea-Ice Cover Biogeochemical Cycles Greenhouse Gas Contributions Trends in Greenhouse Gases Aerosols Changes in Land Use and Land Cover Anthropogenic versus Natural Forcing of Climate Chapter 8 Big Ideas CHAPTER 9: PALEOCLIMATIC INVESTIGATIONS: RELEVANCY TO THE PRESENT STATE OF CLIMATE Introduction Reconstructing Climates of the Past Proxy Climate Data Sources Historical Media Dendrochronology Pollen Analysis Ocean Sediments Speleothems Coral Glacial Ice Cores Geologic Record Climates of Geologic Times Climates of the Pleistocene Glaciers The Role of Climate in Glacial Dynamics Historical Perspective on Pleistocene Glaciation Glaciers and Landscapes Chronology and Temperature Trends Heinrich Events Climates of the Holocene Climates of the Last Millennium Medieval Climate Anomaly Little Ice Age Chapter 9 Big Ideas CHAPTER 10: FUTURE PROJECTIONS AND EXTREMES OF CLIMATE Introduction What are Models? Global Climate Models Weather versus Climate Models Model Limits Physical Basis for modeling Earth’s Climate Search for Cycles and Analogs Enhanced Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming Climate Sensitivity Assessment of Climate Model Output Search for Changes in Extreme Events Convective Weather Tornado Characteristics Tornado Hazards Tornado Climatology Heavy Precipitation Tropical Cyclones Climatological Causes of Tropical Cyclones Hurricane Life Cycle Hurricane Hazards Trends and Future Projections Winter Storms Drought Climate Singularities Climate Tipping Points Chapter 10 Big Ideas PART IV: Our Relationship to Climate Variability CHAPTER 11: HUMAN AND ECOSYSTEM VULNERABILITIES Introduction Ocean and Cryosphere Vulnerabilities Rising Sea Levels Shrinking Glaciers Arctic Environment Marine Life Human Vulnerabilities Agriculture Global Food Supply Green Revolution Food Security in the U.S. Security Considerations Vulnerabilities in the Biosphere Human Health Infectious Diseases Vector-borne Diseases Ecosystem Limitations Forests and Wildfires Deforestation Species Migrations Biodiversity Chapter 11 Big Ideas CHAPTER 12: CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION AND ENERGY USE Introduction Managing Anthropogenic Climate Change The Energy-CO2 Connection Fossil Fuels Coal Petroleum Natural Gas Nuclear Power Renewable Energy Sources Solar Wind Geothermal Tidal Power Hydropower Biofuels Carbon Trading and Taxation Carbon Capture and Storage Geoengineering the Climate System Ecosystem Sequestration Sulfate Haze Brighter Ocean Clouds Ocean Iron Fertilization Efficacy of Geoengineering Role of Energy Efficiency Improving Transportation Sector Efficiency Adaptation and Resiliency Chapter 12 Big Ideas CHAPTER 13: HUMAN NEEDS, ACTIONS AND PUBLIC POLICY Introduction Policy Lessons from Stratospheric Ozone Depletion Climate Policy Making at the National Level Political Response Incremental Decision-making Mitigation International Mitigation Efforts UN Framework Convention On Climate Change Kyoto Protocol Doha Amendment Paris Agreement U.S. Mitigation Efforts Regional Mitigation Efforts Adaptation U.S. Adaptation Efforts Geoengineering Management and Policy Knowledge Base Expansion Climate Change Policy Climate, Sustainability and Stewardship Climate Change: The Economic Perspective Free Markets Government Regulation Analytic Tools Overall Role of Policy in a Changing Climate Chapter 13 Big Ideas CHAPTER 14: CLIMATE STUDIES AS A SCIENTIFIC ENDEAVOR IN A CHANGING SOCIETY Introduction Resistance to Climate Change Evidence Skepticism versus Denialism Uncertainty Scientific Consensus Historical Analogs of Resistance Copernicus, Wegener and Callendar Tobacco Industry Dangers of Denialism Denialism in the Political Realm Discourse in Media Public Perception Communicating Science Campaigns Orchestrated by Denialists Role of the Broadcast Meteorologist Disparaging Science and the Climate Scientist Climategate Legal Tactics Used Against Climate Scientists Chapter 14 Big Ideas TOPICS IN DEPTH GLOSSARY