Organic Food Systems : Meeting the Needs of Southern Africa

Organic agriculture world-wide allows farmers to produce healthy food with low levels of external inputs, and often shortens the value chains, giving farmers a higher share of the consumer dollar. This book reports on long-term comparative organic farming systems research trials carried out over the last four years in South Africa's Southern Cape, as well as research on the organic sector and the technical tools it requires in South Africa, Zambia, Uganda and Tanzania. The trials show how the yield gap between organic and conventional crops was closed over 3 years. Water use efficiency was also greater in the organic farming system, and pests and diseases were effectively controlled using biological products. Farmer training approaches, soil carbon analysis, participatory guarantee systems, the Zambian organic farming sector (agronomy) and Ugandan organic farmer training support, and a sector plan for southern African organic farming are examined. Cover Organic Food Systems Copyright Contents Contributors Foreword Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations Introduction Summary of the Book Structure of this Book Part 1 Conceptual and Global Perspectives 1 The Developing Organic Sector in Southern and Eastern Africa: What Have We Learned About Sustainable Development? Introduction The Organic Sector in Africa The Organic Sector in Southern Africa Farming Systems Research and Extension (FSR/E) A Conceptual Model of South African Small-scale Farmer Development Climate Change and Food Security in Africa Science Orthodoxy, Food Systems and Farming Conclusion References 2 An Overview of Global Organic and Regenerative Agriculture Movements Introduction The History of Organic Agriculture The Origins of the Formal International Movement Organic Agriculture Principles and Definitions The principles of organic agriculture Principle of health Principle of ecology Principle of fairness Principle of care Organic 3.0 Regenerative Agriculture The Formation of the International Regeneration Movement References 3 Organic Research Contributes to Sector Development and Good Organic Policy: the Danish, Swiss, American and African Case Studies Introduction Summary of UNCTAD (2008 and 2016) Recommendations Organic Seed Breeding and its Impacts on Regulatory Frameworks Long-term Organic Comparative Research: Three Examples The Swiss long-term research trial The Danish long-term trials and consumer impact research Findings arising from dissemination of R&D results The long-term trials at Rodale Institute in Pennsylvania, USA Conclusions on the Importance of Research for Organic Farming in Africa References 4 The Organic Academy of IFOAM-Organics International: Training Multipliers in the Developing World Introduction Multiplying Organic Capacity: the Method The OLC Short and Tailored Courses The OFC Conclusion References 5 Understanding a Food Systems Approach Introduction The Call to a Food Systems Approach Understanding Systems System Basics Applying Systems Thinking to Construct Food Systems Academic/Scholarly Food Systems Approaches Is it Useful to Apply the Food Systems Approach to Organic Food and Farming? Conclusion References 6 BERAS – a Global Network of Food Systems with Examples from Sweden, Haiti, Tanzania and India Introduction BERAS and Järna in Sweden Early History: Eutrophication as a Major Environmental Challenge for the Baltic Sea and the Two BERAS EU Projects BERAS 2003–2006 (lead partner: Swedish University of Agricultural Science) BERAS 2010–2013 (lead partner: Local SFS and Learning Centres (LCs) ‘The base case’ – Södertälje food system Sharing our work and concepts with initiatives in Tanzania, Haiti and India BERAS in Tanzania, Haiti and India Tanzania – Manyara Organic Farming Initiative (MOFI) Haiti – Vallières in North-Eastern Haiti School gardens Organic food production and marketing BERAS India and its seven local food systems Ladakh – Ladakh Environment and Health Organization (LEHO) Coonoor, the Nilgiris – Jezreel Farms Kudumbam kolunji ecological farm and training centre Inba Seva Sangam (ISS) – Sevapur, Kadavur district CIRHEP (Natural Resource Management) Muhil – Sustainable Agriculture for Everyone (SAFE) Annapurna Farm in Auroville Conclusion References Part 2 Capacity Building and Climate Change 7 The Likely Impact of the 2015–2018 Drought in South Africa: Lessons From the 2008 Food Price Crisis and Future Implications Introduction Scientific nutrition recommendations Nutritional quality and organic farming Food Availability and the Impact of Drought and Climate Change Urban Gardens, Food Sovereignty and Dietary Diversity School Food Gardens Price Volatility and Drought Rainfall and Temperature Historical Trends in Staple Production and Prices Weather Shock The Current Household Food Security Situation and Trends from National Data Decline of Agriculture Food Insecurity in Cape Town and Access to Water Conclusion References 8 The Use of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) to Support Organic Food Systems in Africa Introduction History of PRA Use of PRA in SA in the 1990s Use of PRA in Peri-urban Cape Town: PHA, 2018 Transect walk and participatory mapping exercises What did we see? What was important? Visioning exercise: what could/should happen on the land? Use of Venn diagrams Developing a problem tree and a solutions tree Organizing activities using PRA Feedback from participants on the use of PRA techniques Overview of development approaches Conclusion References 9 Strengthening Participation in the Organic Value Chain for Small-scale Farmers in Southern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Introduction Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) Critical Factors for Smallholder Market Access Critical factor 1: transport and distance to markets Critical factor 2: product quality Critical factor 3: product quantity Critical factor 4: buyer–seller relationship Critical factor 5: market information Research Questions Conceptual Framework for the Project Agri-SCIP Fresh Produce Supply Chain Key Operations Marketing and Branding Critical Factors for Smallholder-farmer Participation in Agri-SCIP Critical factor 1: transport and distanceto markets Critical factor 2: product quality Critical factor 3: product quantity Critical factor 4: buyer–seller relationship Critical factor 5: market information Conclusion References 10 Participatory Guarantee Systems as an Organic Market Entry Point for Small-scale Farmers in South Africa Introduction Small-scale Farmers in South Africa Organic Farming and Quality Management Bryanston Organic and Natural Market PGS (Gauteng) Siyavuna PGS (south coast of KZN Province) Giyani PGS (Limpopo Province) Green Road PGS (Western Cape Province) Outeniqua Natural and Organic PGS (Western Cape Province) ‘Western Cape PGS’ (Wolesley, Western Cape Province) Potential Market Access Entry Points for Small-scale Organic Farmers Conclusion References 11 Development of an Inclusive Value Chain for Peri-urban Micro-farmers Introduction Analysis of Market Access for Smallholder Farmers Government collaboration Potential market participants who could represent stakeholders in the market Assessing different micro-farming models Market logistics Ethical pricing versus conventional pricing Conclusion References 12 Supporting Vulnerable Communities in the Eastern Cape: Assessing the Rainfall Evidence Introduction Climate and Agriculture: Resilience, Biodiversity and Productivity Resilience Biodiversity Productivity A Review of Selected African Initiatives The Agricultural Context of the Eastern Cape in South Africa Methodology Rainfall Patterns for the Eastern Cape Historical rainfall records for the Eastern Cape Agriculture: Development Proposals What Can We Learn From the Analysis of Long-term Rainfall Data? What Can We Say About General Trends in Seasonal Rainfall? What Should Be Done Now? Conclusion References 13 Water Efficiency, Energy Efficiency and Suburban Vegetable Production Introduction Evolution of the Water, Energy and Food System What Change Can We See in Electricity Consumption? What About Water Consumption and Water Savings? How Much Water and Time Does a Food Garden Need? Discussion References 14 Experiential Training of Farmers and University Diploma Students in KwaZulu-Natal and the Southern Cape Introduction Theoretical Perspective Methods Results and Discussion Model 1: Rainman training-farm-based learning Experience Reflection Conceptualisation Model 2: Rainman training and on-farm based learning Experience Reflection Conceptualisation Model 3: Nelson Mandela University at George (Diploma in Agricultural Management); classroom followed by experiential learning and then integration Experience Reflection Conceptualisation Conclusion References Part 3 Supporting Organic Farmers 15 The National Organic Agriculture Movement of Uganda Introduction Why Was NOGAMU Formed? Mission and values Mandate and scope Goal Specific objectives Membership and Affiliation Partners Implementing partners Collaborating partners Funding partners NOGAMU’S Role in the Organic Sector Coordinating and developing OA in Uganda Creating market access for smallholder farmers Developing and reviewing standards The EPOPA project Establishing a local certification body Conducting advocacy on policy issues Networking Impact on Farmers’ Livelihoods Increased food and nutrition security Better incomes Access to functional markets Building social capital Challenges Lack of a government policy on OA Lack of legislation on organic production standards Limited research on OA Low investment in OA production and marketing Conclusion References 16 Factors Contributing to Adoption or Disadoption of Organic Agriculture in Zambia Introduction Method Findings Adoption and disadoption of OA in Zambia Conclusion References 17 The Rapid Incineration Field Test as an Accurate, Cost-effective and Practical Tool for Estimating Soil Carbon in Africa Introduction Material and Methods Description of the study area Soil sample collection and preparation Standardization of the RIFT methodand prototype device Statistical analysis Results Discussion Conclusion References 18 The Nelson Mandela Long-term Comparative Organic Farming Systems Research Trials: Baseline Study and Trial Design Introduction Similar Established Research Establishing a Baseline Materials and Methods Study area Soil sampling Soil biology Indicator crop Meteorological data Biofumigant indicator crop choice Site preparation and planting Leaf analysis Yield height measurements Results Soils Data on soil properties and yield height Growth and visible nutrient deficiency symptoms Leaf analysis Discussion Nutrient availability and deficiencies Soil pH Conclusion References 19 Comparative Water Use Efficiency and Water Retention in the Mandela Trials Introduction Factors Affecting WUE in Crops The influence of mulches on SWC and soil properties Soil properties and their influence on water holding capacity Study Area Materials and Methods Data collection and analysis Rainfall data Aquacheck probe data Theta probe data Seasons Results 2016/17 Season 0–10 cm SWC 2017/18 Season 0–10 cm SWC 2016/17 Season 0–50 cm SWC 2017/18 Season 0–50 cm SWC Soil carbon Discussion Soil depth 6 cm Soil depth 10 cm Soil depth 0–50 cm Conclusion References 20 Biological and Chemical Soil Fumigation and Pest and Disease Management Comparisons in the Western Cape Introduction DBM, P. xylostella White blister of Brassica spp. Clubroot disease of Brassica spp. Chemical control of pests and diseases Chemical soil fumigation Biological control of pests and diseases Biological soil fumigation A holistic approach to pest and disease management Methods and Materials Background Trial layout and design Cultivation practices Chemical control programme Biological control programme Holistic control programme Results and Discussion The effects of different crop protection strategies on DBM in broccoli production White blister infection on broccoli leaves White blister infection on broccoli heads at harvest Conclusion References 21 Initial Assessment of Selected Biological Soil Health Indicators in Organic Versus Conventional Cropping Systems in Field Trials in South Africa Introduction Materials and Methods Soil sample collection Determination of functional diversity Determination of soil microbial enzymatic activity Statistical analysis of functional diversity and enzyme activity data Nematode dynamics Analysis of nematode dynamics Results Carbon source utilization profiles Microbial diversity indices Soil microbial enzymatic activity Nematode dynamics Effect of cropping systems on nematode trophic group and family distribution Basal, structure, channel and enrichment conditions Discussion Effect of cropping systems on carbon source utilization profiles Diversity indices Soil microbial enzymatic activity Nematode population dynamics Nematode indices Conclusion References 22 Soil Fertility Changes and Crop Yields from the First 4 Years of the Mandela Trials Introduction Methods and Materials Fertilization in season 2016/17 Fertilization in the 2017/18 season Results and Discussion Soil Results after Seasons 2016/17 and 2017/18 Soil pH Soil pH 2016/17 Soil pH 2017/18 Exchangeable aluminium Exchangeable aluminium levels 2016/17 Exchangeable aluminium levels 2017/18 Acid saturation Acid saturation levels 2016/17 Acid saturation levels 2017/18 Soil carbon Soil carbon levels 2016/17 Soil carbon levels 2017/18 Phosphorus (P) Phosphorus levels 2016/17 Phosphorus levels 2017/18 Potassium Potassium levels 2016/17 Potassium levels 2017/18 Calcium Calcium 2016/17 Calcium 2017/18 Magnesium Magnesium 2016/17 Magnesium 2017/18 Discussion on soil fertility results Water use efficiency (WUE) and soil microbiology Residual soil fertility as shown by the 2018 mustard indicator crop Conclusion on soil fertility, WUE and soil microbiology Pests and Diseases Pests and diseases 2016/17 Pests and diseases 2017/18 Yield Results and Discussion: Seasons 2016/17 and 2017/18 Introduction Cabbage results 2016/17 Cabbage results 2017/18 Conclusion References Part 4 Upscaling the Organic Sector in Africa 23 Urban Agriculture: Challenges and Opportunities in Urban Water Management and Planning Introduction Challenges of Urban Agriculture in the Case of Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania Access to water for Farmers in Dar es Salaam Rainwater Harvesting Techniques as an Opportunity to Balance Erratic Rainfall Zaï pits Fanya Juu terraces Half-moons Vetiver grass on swales Integrating Rainwater Harvesting Structures into the Urban Context Conclusion References 24 A Future Strategy for Organic Development in Southern Africa Introduction Paradigm Change: Moving from Two Conflictual Narratives to Transformation Review of the Main Findings of this Book Educate farm women Build farmer skills progressively and systematically Build local institutional capacity Educate consumers about sustainable food systems and health Market Potential Corporate and Government Involvement Government involvement The corporate sector A Potential Project Design Potential Contribution of Key Stakeholders SAOSO Sector Plan Recommendations Inception phase – 3 months Project proposal action items for year one Project proposal action items for year two Project proposal action items for year three Indicators of Sustainability Discussion of Proposed Indicators Conclusion References Index Back Cover This book reports on long-term comparative organic farming systems' research trials carried out over the last 5 years in the Southern Cape of South Africa, as well as research into the successes and failures of the organic sector and the technical tools required for sustainable development in South Africa, Zambia, Uganda and Tanzania. It includes 24 chapters organized into 4 parts. Part 1 (Chapters 1-6) discusses the historical development of organic farming systems, examines the global issues which confront us, and develops some concepts showing a progression in small-scale farmer development and how this can be supported with appropriate training and policy. The difference between national food self-sufficiency and household food security is examined, and the organic sector is introduced. Part 2 (Chapters 7-14) deals with capacity building and climate change. Holistic systems, inclusive participatory approaches, institution building and experiential learning are examined. Organic food production, farmer training, value chains, impact of drought on food prices and food availability, and urban water and energy use efficiency are described. Part 3 (Chapters 15-22) presents evidence on how to support organic farmers. It starts with 2 case studies on the well-developed organic sector in Uganda and the developing one in Zambia. The following chapters discuss soil carbon determination, comparison of organic and conventional farming systems, pest and disease control (e.g., chemical, holistic and biological control), soil fumigation, soil microbiology in organic and conventional systems, soil fertility changes and crop yield. Part 4 (Chapters 23-24) makes strategic suggestions about how to upscale organic farming and organic food systems in Southern Africa. This book is a vital resource for all stakeholders in organic agriculture