Optical code division multiple access : a practical perspective

"A comprehensive guide to optical fiber communications, from the basic principles to the latest developments in OCDMA for Next-Generation Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) systems. Part I starts off with the fundamentals of light propagation in optical fibers, including multiple access protocols, and their enabling techniques. Part II is dedicated to the practical perspectives of Next-Generation Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) technology. It covers the key building blocks of OCDMA, devices such as optical encoders and decoders, signal impairments due to noise, and data confidentiality, a unique property of OCDMA. This is followed by hybrid system architectures with TDM and WDM and practical aspects such as system cost, energy efficiency and long-reach PONs. Featuring the latest research, with cutting-edge coverage of system design, optical implementations, and experimental demonstrations in test beds, this text is ideal for students, researchers and practitioners in the industry seeking to obtain an up-to-date understanding of optical communication networks"-- Provided by publisher Coverpage 1 Halftitle 3 Title 5 Copyright 6 Dedication 7 Contents 9 Preface 13 Acknowledgments 15 Author Biography 16 1 Introduction 17 1.1 Broadband service trend 17 1.2 Historical perspective of optical fiber communications 20 1.3 Optical transmission systems 20 1.4 Optical networks 31 1.5 Access networks 39 1.6 Local area networks 45 Problems 46 Part I 47 2 Optical multiple access systems 49 2.1 Passive optical network 49 2.1.1 Technology roadmap 49 2.1.2 Current PON 51 2.1.2.1 G-PON 51 2.1.2.2 EPON 53 2.1.2.3 10G-EPON and XG-PON 56 2.1.3 Practical aspects 57 2.1.3.1 Power budget 57 2.1.3.2 Ranging 60 2.1.3.3 Dynamic bandwidth allocation 61 2.2 Multiple access techniques 63 2.2.1 Time division multiple access 63 2.2.2 Wavelength division multiple access 65 2.2.3 Hybrid of wavelength and time division multiple access 70 2.2.4 Orthogonal frequency division multiple access 71 2.3 Power saving operation 77 Problems 80 3 Light propagation in optical fibers 81 3.1 Loss 81 3.2 Waveguide mode 84 3.3 Single-mode fiber 89 3.4 Two-mode fiber 95 3.5 Coupled-mode theory 100 3.5.1 Co-directional coupling 101 3.5.2 Contra-directional coupling 103 3.5.3 Distributed Bragg reflection laser diode 106 3.6 Dispersion 107 3.7 Pulse broadening 111 3.8 Dispersion compensation 117 Appendix 3.1 119 Appendix 3.2 119 Appendix 3.3 120 Appendix 3.4 121 Problems 121 4 Fundamentals of transmission systems 123 4.1 Detection theory 123 4.2 Modulation 126 4.2.1 Modulation formats 126 4.2.2 On-off-keying modulation 128 4.2.3 Electro-optic effect 131 4.3 Additive noise 134 4.3.1 Shot noise 134 4.3.2 Thermal noise 135 4.3.3 Optical amplifier noise 135 4.4 Quantum limit of OOK direct detection 137 4.5 Bit error rate of OOK transmission systems 139 4.6 Coherent detection of OOK transmission systems 140 4.7 Phase-shift-keying modulation transmission systems 142 4.7.1 Binary phase-shift-keying modulation 142 4.7.2 M-ary phase-shift-keying modulation 143 4.7.3 Bit error rate of binary phase-shift-keying 147 4.8 Stimulated Brillouin scattering 149 Appendix 4.1 151 Problems 153 5 Enabling techniques 155 5.1 Star coupler 155 5.2 Broadband light source 156 5.2.1 Mode-locked laser diode 156 5.2.2 Supercontinuum light source 162 5.3 Optical time-gating 163 5.4 Optical thresholding 167 5.5 Erbium-doped fiber amplifier 167 5.5.1 Operation principle 168 5.5.2 Pump scheme 170 5.6 Burst-mode 3R receiver 171 5.7 Colorless technique 174 Problems 178 Part II 179 6 OCDMA principles 181 6.1 Spread spectrum communication 181 6.2 Wireless CDMA versus optical CDMA 183 6.3 Optical decoding based upon correlation 188 6.4 Early stage of OCDMA 189 6.4.1 Coherence of the light source 189 Case I: Incoherent limit (|τ |  τc) 190 Case II: Coherent limit (|τ | 190 6.4.2 Coherence multiplexing 191 6.4.3 Coherent versus incoherent OCDMA 192 6.4.4 Asynchronous versus synchronous OCDMA 194 6.5 Signal impairment 196 6.5.1 Evaluation of system performance 196 6.5.2 Chip rate detection 197 Case I: Incoherent regime () 199 Case II: Coherent regime () 199 Case III: Partially coherent regime () 199 6.5.3 Bit rate detection 201 7 Optical encoding and decoding 204 7.1 Code sequences 204 7.1.1 Prime code 204 7.1.2 Gold code 205 7.2 Optical code sequences 209 7.2.1 On-off-keying code 209 7.2.2 Phase-shift-keying code 210 7.3 Optical encoders and decoders 211 7.3.1 Superstructured fiber Bragg grating encoder and decoder 211 7.3.1.1 SSFBG encoder and decoder for PSK codes 215 7.3.1.2 Apodized profile 218 7.3.1.3 Fabrication methods 222 7.3.2 Multiport encoder and decoder in arrayed waveguide grating configuration 224 7.3.2.1 Principle of design 225 7.3.2.2 Correlation properties 230 7.3.3 Correlation between a heterogeneous combination of multiport and SSFBG encoder and decoder 235 8 Data confidentiality 239 8.1 Security architecture for systems provisioning end-to-end communications 239 8.2 Security threats to a PON 242 8.3 Bit ciphering versus block ciphering 243 8.3.1 Bit ciphering 243 8.3.2 Block ciphering 248 8.4 Data confidentiality of OCDMA-PON 251 8.5 Steganographic security enhancement 252 8.6 M-ary OCDMA 252 8.6.1 Principle of operation 252 8.6.2 Implementation of 16-ary OCDMA 254 8.6.3 Scaling of the M-ary count 257 8.6.3.1 Polarization division multiplexing 257 8.6.3.2 Multi-dimensional codes 262 9 Testbeds of OCDMA and hybrid systems 267 9.1 OCDMA testbed 267 9.2 Hybrid OCDMA systems 271 9.2.1 TDM-OCDMA-PON system 271 9.2.1.1 Architecture of TDM-OCDMA-PON 271 9.2.1.2 Experimental demonstration 273 9.2.1.3 Sourceless ONU without light source 278 9.2.1.4 Long-reach PON without dispersion compensation 280 9.2.2 WDM-OCDMA-PON system 285 9.2.3 TDM-WDM-OCDMA-PON system 289 9.3 40 Gb/s OCDMA systems 293 9.3.1 Multiport encoder and decoder configuration 294 9.3.2 SSFBG and multiport encoder and decoder configuration 296 9.4 Space OCDMA 298 9.4.1 Space encoding and decoding 299 9.4.2 Experimental demonstration 304 9.4.3 Multicore erbium-doped image fiber amplifier 307 10 Practical aspects 313 10.1 Capacity, cost and power consumption of hybrid PONs [1] 313 10.1.1 Total capacity 313 10.1.2 Cost 317 10.1.3 Power consumption 320 10.2 Applications of optical codes in optical networks 321 10.2.1 Optical packet switching 322 10.2.2 Multi-granularity optical path switching 327 10.3 Faults and troubleshooting 331 10.3.1 Possible scenario of faults in PON 331 10.3.2 Testing and testing equipment 332 10.3.3 Case studies of faults [20] 334 Case I : Fault at an ONU 334 Case II : Fault at the OLT 336 10.4 Safety to the human body and systems 337 10.4.1 Safety to the human body 337 10.4.2 Fiber fuse 338 References 342 Index 354 A self-contained, up-to-date guide to optical fiber communications, from the fundamentals to practical perspectives of OCDMA for Next-Generation Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) systems. The combination of foundations with cutting-edge research makes this an ideal reference for students, researchers and practitioners in the industry.