One Health Implications of Agrochemicals and their Sustainable Alternatives (Sustainable Development and Biodiversity)

This book focuses on the United Nations SDG 3, SDG 12, and SDG 15. The book covers the full range of issues associated with agrochemical use from a One Health standpoint to promote a cleaner and safer alternative that leaves little to no negative legacy on Earth’s natural, social, and economic systems. The main focus of the book is to address the biodiversity and human health, food security, and socio-environmental implications of agrochemical use in food production. It deals with the need to move away from the use of harmful chemicals in agriculture. The threat to key aspects of One Health will be used as evidence in support of the need to transition to safer and cleaner food production systems as well as the social, economic, health, and environmental viability of sustainable alternatives. One Health is the innovative convergence approach that encourages collaborative, cross-sectoral, and transdisciplinary methods to monitor, assess, report, and implement shared human health, biodiversity, and environmental challenges and goals such as agrochemical use. Conventional agrochemicals are chemicals used to protect plants, improve crop yield and manage agricultural fields but also have a negative legacy on Earth’s systems. This book is of interest and useful to agricultural trainees and trainers, soil, food and agricultural institutes, food and soil systems specialists, biodiversity and environmental managers, activists, practitioners, and students. It is also a useful read for conservationists and industries interested in promoting organic agriculture for a sustainable community, regional and global development. Contents Editors and Contributors Part I: Biodiversity and Human Health Impacts of Agrochemicals Chapter 1: Agrochemicals: Safety Evaluation and Characterization for Humans and Biodiversity 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Classification of Agrochemicals 1.2.1 Pesticides 1.2.1.1 Pesticide Classification 1.2.1.1.1 Classification According to the Specified/Targeted Function 1.2.1.1.2 Classification According to the Mode of Entry 1.2.1.1.3 Classification According to the Chemical Structure 1.2.1.1.4 Classification According to the Origin 1.2.1.1.5 Classification According to the Commercial Form 1.2.2 Fertilizers 1.2.2.1 Fertilizer Classification 1.2.2.1.1 Classification According to Nature 1.2.2.1.2 Classification According to Composition 1.2.2.1.3 Classification According to Formulation State 1.3 Safety Evaluation of Agrochemicals 1.3.1 Toxicity Assessment 1.3.2 Ecological Assessment 1.3.3 Exposure Assessment 1.3.4 Risk Assessment 1.4 Characterization of Agrochemicals 1.4.1 The Exposure Profile of Agrochemicals 1.4.2 Agrochemical Degradation Monitoring/Studies 1.4.2.1 Biological Degradation 1.4.2.2 Physiochemical Degradation 1.4.2.3 Field Dissipation 1.4.2.4 Environmental Chemical Approaches 1.4.3 Relationship Between Agrochemicals and Agrobiodiversity 1.4.4 Side Effects of Agrochemicals 1.4.4.1 The Effect of Agrochemicals on Biodiversity 1.4.4.2 Side Effects of Agrochemicals on the Ecosystem 1.4.4.2.1 Effects on Aquatic Systems 1.4.4.2.2 Effects on Terrestrial Systems 1.4.4.3 Side Effects of Agrochemicals on Humans 1.5 Recommendations for Minimizing the Overuse of Agrochemicals 1.6 Conclusions References Chapter 2: Agrochemical Use and Emerging Human and Animal Diseases 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Classification of Agrochemicals 2.3 Mechanisms of Action of Common Agrochemicals 2.3.1 Herbicides and Their Mode of Action 2.3.2 Fungicides and Their Mode of Action 2.3.3 Insecticides and Their Mode of Action 2.4 Lived Experiences from Agrochemical Application 2.5 Some Existing and Emerging Human Diseases Attributed to Agrochemical Use 2.5.1 Symptoms of Agrochemical Poisoning 2.5.2 Reproductive Effect on Humans 2.5.3 Neurotoxicity 2.5.4 Cancers 2.5.5 Endocrine Disruption 2.5.6 Respiratory Problems 2.5.7 Effect on Pregnancy and Fetal Malformations 2.6 Animal Diseases Attributed to Agrochemical Use 2.7 Disease Resistance 2.8 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Global Biodiversity Decline and Loss from Agricultural Intensification Through Agrochemical Application 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Types and Characterization of Agrochemicals: History of Agrochemical Application for Agricultural Intensification 3.3 Functional Diversity of Global Biodiversity 3.4 Biogeography and Agricultural Intensification 3.5 Biodiversity and Environmental Consequence of Agrochemical Use 3.6 Regulations and Policies for Sustainable Agrochemical Uses 3.7 Sustainable Agricultural Intensification Practices 3.8 Conclusion References Chapter 4: Evidence of the Toxic Potentials of Agrochemicals on Human Health and Biodiversity 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Implications of Agrochemicals 4.3 Types of Agrochemicals 4.3.1 Organophosphosphates 4.3.2 Carbamates 4.3.3 Organochlorine 4.3.4 Triazines 4.3.5 Dithiocarbamates 4.3.6 Pyrethrins 4.4 Some Known Impacts of Agrochemicals on Human Health 4.4.1 Cancer 4.4.2 Asthma 4.4.3 Diabetes 4.4.4 Parkinson ́s Condition 4.4.5 Blood Cancer 4.4.6 Mental Effects 4.4.7 Reproductive Conditions 4.5 Toxic Potential of Agrochemicals on Biodiversity 4.5.1 Pesticides ́ Impact on Biodiversity 4.5.2 Soil Microbes 4.5.3 Invertebrates 4.5.4 Aquatic Life 4.5.5 Birds 4.6 Alternatives to Agrochemicals 4.7 Existing Agrochemical Regulations and Their Focus 4.8 Conclusion References Chapter 5: Agrochemicals and Pollinator Diversity: A Socio-ecological Synthesis 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Bee Diversity and Their Pollination Benefits: A One Health Perspective 5.3 Threat to Pollinator ́s Health 5.4 Agrochemicals: Some Facts and Faith 5.5 Agrochemicals Usage Inventory: Global Overview 5.6 Global Shifts in Pollinator Communities: From Bees to Flies 5.7 Pollinators and Global Food Security 5.8 Pollinators for Ecosystem Services 5.9 Agrochemical Consequences on Pollinator Diversity and Ecosystem Services 5.10 Protecting Pollinators from Agrochemicals: Bee Aware(ness) 5.11 Strategic Plan and Policy Framework 5.12 Scientific Research and Future Recommendation 5.13 Conclusion References Chapter 6: One Health Implications of Agrochemicals and Their Eco-Benign Substitutes 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Crop Protection: Issues and Concerns 6.2.1 Some Issues Associated with Agrochemicals 6.2.2 Agrochemicals in Present Agricultural Practices 6.2.3 Agrochemicals for Crop Productivity 6.2.4 Apex Bodies: Role in Agriculture 6.2.5 Health Benefits of Agrochemicals 6.2.6 Characterization of Agrochemicals 6.3 Natural Products as Sustainable Options 6.3.1 Green and Sustainable Substitutes Against Synthetic Counterparts 6.3.2 Biopesticides as Sustainable Products 6.3.3 Safety-Related Concerns 6.3.4 One Health Impact of Agrochemicals 6.3.5 Ecology-Based Impact 6.3.6 Waste Minimization 6.3.7 Minimizing the Use of Hazardous Substances 6.3.8 Designing Green Products for One Health: Drivers 6.3.9 Merits of Naturally Sustainable Products 6.3.10 Examples of Some Sustainable (Eco-Benign) Substitutes 6.3.10.1 Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) 6.3.10.2 Spinosad 6.3.10.3 Messenger 6.3.10.4 Serenade 6.3.11 Sustainable Solutions to Exacerbate Plant Resilience 6.3.12 Disease Containment with Pine Bark-Based Products 6.4 Detrimental Effects of Artificial Agrochemicals on Climate Change 6.5 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Risk of Agrochemical on Biodiversity and Human Health: Conservation Implications and Sustainable Mitigations Strate... 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Agrochemical Existence and Use 7.1.2 Agrochemical Classification 7.1.3 Conservation Strategies on the Use of Agrochemicals 7.1.3.1 The Need for Clean and Safe Agricultural Practices 7.2 Relationship Between Agrochemicals, Biodiversity, and Human Health 7.2.1 Agrochemical: Contamination and Impacts 7.2.2 Effects of Agrochemicals on Biodiversity 7.2.2.1 Volatilization 7.2.2.2 Photolysis 7.2.2.3 Pesticide Degradation 7.2.3 Effects of Agrochemicals on Human Health 7.2.4 Effects of Agrochemicals on the Agroecosystem 7.3 Safe Mitigation Strategies on the Use of Agrochemicals 7.4 Conclusion References Chapter 8: Mitigating the One Health Impacts of Agrochemicals Through Sustainable Policies and Regulations 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Effects of Agrochemicals on Human Health and the Environment 8.1.1.1 Environmental Impacts 8.1.1.2 Agrochemicals and Their Effects on Soil Enzyme Activities 8.1.1.3 Agrochemicals and Atmospheric Concentration 8.2 Organochlorides and Water Sources 8.2.1 Agrochemicals and Aquatic Biodiversity 8.2.1.1 Citation Cluster Analysis of Agrochemicals 8.2.1.2 Human Health Impacts 8.2.2 Issues and Cases of Agrochemical Misuse 8.2.2.1 Cases in India 8.2.2.2 Cases in Sri Lanka 8.2.2.3 Cases in Mexico 8.2.2.4 Cases in Males, Females, and Children 8.2.2.5 Other Areas 8.2.3 Practical Cases of Agrochemical Use and Human Health 8.2.3.1 Endosulfan Usage in India 8.2.3.2 Glyphosphate Usage in the United States 8.3 Agrochemicals and Environmental Policies and Laws 8.3.1 Agrochemical Laws and Directives 8.3.1.1 Australia 8.3.1.2 Canada 8.3.1.3 Germany 8.3.1.4 Ireland 8.3.1.5 The Netherlands 8.3.1.6 The United States of America 8.3.2 The Weakness of Agricultural Laws 8.3.3 The Weakness of Environmental Laws 8.3.4 Sustainable Approaches to Reducing Agrochemical Use 8.3.4.1 Organic Farming 8.3.4.2 Biological Farming 8.3.4.3 Regenerative Agriculture 8.3.4.4 Permaculture 8.4 Policy Gaps to Mitigate Agrochemical Usage 8.4.1 Lacking Risk Drivers for Ecosystems 8.4.1.1 The Corrections of the Ecosystem in a Short-Term (Stage 1) 8.4.1.2 A New Paradigm from Supervised Authorization of Agrochemicals (Stage 2) 8.4.1.3 Legal Framework, Institutions, and Stakeholders Bridge (Stage 3) 8.4.2 Land Management: Stakeholder-Driven Cooperative Methods 8.5 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Health Implications of Agrochemicals: Nexus of Their Impacts, Sustainable Management Approaches and Policy Gaps 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Human Exposure to Agrochemicals 9.2.1 Occupational Exposure to Agrochemicals 9.2.2 Non-Occupational Exposure to Agrochemicals 9.2.3 Acute Health Effects of Agrochemicals 9.2.4 Some Chronic Health Effects of Agrochemicals on Humans and Biodiversity 9.2.4.1 Neurologic Effects 9.2.4.1.1 Parkinson ́s Disease 9.2.4.1.2 Alzheimer ́s Disease 9.2.4.2 Carcinogenic Effects 9.2.4.2.1 Leukaemia 9.2.4.2.2 Prostate Cancer 9.2.4.2.3 Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL) 9.2.5 Reproductive Effects 9.2.6 Pulmonary Effects 9.3 Environmental Impact of Agrochemicals 9.3.1 Deterioration of Surface Water Quality 9.3.2 Deterioration of Groundwater Quality 9.3.3 Impact of Agrochemicals on Soil Health, Quality and Quantity 9.3.3.1 Soil Enzymes 9.3.3.2 Soil Microbial Diversity 9.3.4 Agrochemical Impacts on the Ecosystem 9.4 Potential Sustainable Management Approaches of Agrochemicals 9.4.1 Plant Products 9.4.2 Microbial Products 9.4.3 Biopesticides 9.4.4 Transgenic Herbicide-Resistant Crops 9.5 Mitigating Agrochemical Implications Through Addressing Policy Gaps 9.6 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Detrimental Effects of Agrochemical-Based Agricultural Intensification on Biodiversity: Evidence from Some Past St... 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Agricultural Intensification and Threat to Biodiversity 10.2.1 Agricultural Intensification and Plant Assemblage/Diversity 10.2.2 Agricultural Intensification and Insect Biodiversity 10.2.3 Agricultural Intensification and Bird Biodiversity 10.2.4 Agricultural Intensification and Biodiversity in Aquatic Organisms 10.2.5 Agricultural Intensification and Amphibian Diversity 10.2.6 Agricultural Intensification and Mammals 10.2.7 Agricultural Intensification and Environmental Impacts 10.2.8 Agricultural Intensification and Human Health 10.3 Recommendations and Conclusion References Part II: Food Production, Safety, Security, Sovereignty and the Economic Implications of Agrochemical Use Chapter 11: Food Safety and Agrochemicals: Risk Assessment and Food Security Implications 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Background Information and History of Agrochemicals 11.3 Agrochemicals Classification 11.3.1 Insecticides 11.3.2 Herbicides 11.3.3 Fungicides 11.3.4 Nematicides 11.3.5 Rodenticides 11.3.6 Avicides 11.3.7 Miticides 11.3.8 Pesticides 11.3.9 Bio-pesticides 11.4 Agrochemicals Involvement in Food Production 11.5 Influence of Agrochemicals on Human Health, Biodiversity, and Environment 11.5.1 Impacts on Human Health 11.5.2 Impacts on Biodiversity 11.5.3 Impacts on the Environment 11.6 Agrochemicals and One Health Concern 11.7 Application, Management, and Regulation of Agrochemicals on a Global Scale 11.8 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Chemical-Based Fruit Ripening and the Implications for Ecosystem Health and Safety 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Natural Fruit-Ripening Chemicals 12.3 Chemical Compounds Used in Fruit Ripening 12.4 Some Artificial Fruit-Ripening Chemicals 12.4.1 Ethylene Gas 12.4.2 Acetylene 12.4.3 Ethephon 12.4.4 Ethylene Glycol (C2H6O2) 12.5 Difference Between Natural and Artificial Ripening of Fruits 12.6 Ethylene vs Acetylene in Fruit Ripening 12.7 Effects of Artificial Ripening Chemical Agents on Fruit Quality 12.8 Potential Health Hazards Associated with Artificial Ripening Chemical Agents 12.9 Alternatives to Calcium Carbide 12.10 Impacts on Fruit Decay and Nutrient Cycling Processes 12.11 Economic Implications of the Artificial Ripening of Fruits 12.12 Identification of Artificially Ripened Fruits 12.13 How to Curb the Menace: One Health Impacts of Chemical-Based Fruit Ripening 12.14 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Socio-economic and Ecological Values of Sustainable Alternatives to Pesticides 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Global Pesticide Use and the Environmental Impacts 13.3 Alternative Pest Management Methods 13.3.1 Agricultural Control 13.3.1.1 Strategies to Stop, Slow Down, or Postpone Pest Colonization of the Crop 13.3.1.2 Strategies for Reducing Pest Survival by Altering Abiotic and Biotic Conditions 13.3.1.3 Strategy to Reduce the Damage That Pests Do to Crop Plants 13.3.2 Physical and Mechanical Control 13.3.2.1 Barriers 13.3.2.2 Traps 13.3.2.3 Fire 13.3.2.4 Temperature 13.3.2.5 Radiation 13.3.3 Biological Control 13.3.3.1 Importation 13.3.3.2 Augmentation 13.3.3.3 Conservation 13.3.4 Biofertilizers as Substitutes for Artificial Chemical-Based Pesticides 13.3.4.1 Nitrogen-Fixing Biofertilizers 13.3.4.2 Phosphate-Solubilizing Biofertilizers 13.3.4.3 Phosphate-Mobilizing Biofertilizers 13.3.4.4 Potassium-Solubilizing Biofertilizer 13.3.4.5 Sulfur-Oxidizing Biofertilizer 13.3.4.6 Zinc-Solubilizing Biofertilizers 13.3.4.7 Plant Growth-Promoting Biofertilizer 13.3.5 Semiochemicals as a Potential Alternative to Artificial Chemical-Based Pesticides 13.3.6 Potential of GMOs as a Replacement for Agrochemicals 13.3.7 Seaweed: An Eco-friendly Alternative to Artificial Agrochemicals 13.3.8 Microbial Nanopesticides, Innovative Approach to Replacing Agrochemicals 13.3.9 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 13.3.9.1 Working Principles of the IPM Program 13.3.9.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of the IPM Program 13.4 Factors Responsible for Pesticide Dependence 13.4.1 The Socio-cultural Factor 13.4.2 The Economic Factor 13.4.3 The Political Factors 13.4.4 Food Security and Ecological Factors 13.5 The Socio-economic and Ecological Impacts of Alternatives and Their Suitability 13.6 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Meta-Evaluation of the One Health Implication on Food Systems of Agrochemical Use 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Food Systems 14.3 Contemporary Agrochemicals and Food Production 14.4 Meta-Analysis of Agrochemical Use on Biodiversity, Human Health, and Environmental Sustainability 14.5 Biodiversity Loss: Systematic Review of the Qualitative and Quantitative Impacts of Agrochemical Use 14.6 Human Health: Systematic Review of the Epidemiological Impacts of Agrochemical Use 14.7 Environmental Sustainability: Systematic Review of Qualitative Impacts of Agrochemical Use 14.8 Recommendations and Conclusion References Chapter 15: Food Quality and Agrochemical Use: Integrated Monitoring, Assessment, and Management Policies 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Types of Food Safety Management Systems 15.3 Food Quality and Safety 15.3.1 Food Quality 15.3.2 Food Safety 15.4 Agrochemical Residues in Foods and Food Products 15.4.1 Pesticide Residues 15.4.2 Fertilizers Residues 15.5 Role of Agrochemicals in Food Production 15.6 Factors Exacerbating the Use of Agrochemicals in Agricultural Activities 15.6.1 Environmental Challenges 15.6.2 Activities of Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) 15.6.3 Government Policies 15.6.4 Lack of Labor or High Cost of Labor 15.6.5 Competition Among Farmers/Modern Farming 15.7 Health Implications of Agrochemical Residues in Food 15.8 The Needs to Assess and Monitor Agrochemicals Residues in Food Sources 15.9 Agrochemical Use Practices, Safety Precautions, and Management Strategies 15.9.1 Agrochemical Use Practices 15.9.2 Safety Precautions in Agrochemical Use 15.9.3 Agrochemical Management Strategies 15.10 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Plants and Soil Microbiota Health Implications of Agrochemicals: Potential Alternatives for the Safe Propagation o... 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Types of Agrochemicals 16.3 Formulation of Agrochemicals 16.4 Importance of Agrochemicals in Agriculture 16.5 Agrochemicals Modes and Mechanisms of Action 16.5.1 Insecticides 16.5.2 Fungicides 16.5.3 Herbicides 16.6 Agrochemical Pollution 16.7 Detrimental Effects of Agrochemicals 16.8 Agrochemical Residues in Agriproducts 16.9 Plant and Soil Biota Health Implications of Agrochemicals 16.9.1 Adverse Effects of Agrochemicals on Plants 16.9.2 Adverse Effect on Microbial Community 16.9.3 Effect on Soil Enzymatic Activity 16.9.4 Effect of Agrochemicals on Nutrient Cycling Within Microbial Communities 16.10 Effects of Agrochemical Usage on Human Health 16.10.1 Acute Health Effects of Agrochemical Exposure 16.10.2 Chronic Effects of Agrochemical Exposure 16.10.3 Neurotoxic Effects of Agrochemical Exposure 16.11 Potential Alternatives to Agrochemicals 16.11.1 Usage of Plant-Based Products 16.11.2 Biopesticides Option 16.11.3 Microbial-Based Products 16.11.4 The Use of Transgenic Herbicide-Resistant Crops 16.12 Conclusion References Chapter 17: A Global Perspective of Synthetic Agrochemicals in Local Farmers ́ Markets 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Synthetic Chemicals and Their Constituents 17.3 A Worldwide Outlook on Local Farming and Agrochemicals Management 17.3.1 The European Union 17.3.2 Asia 17.3.3 Africa 17.3.4 America 17.3.5 Oceania 17.4 Risk Factors and Agrochemicals 17.5 Conclusion References Chapter 18: Factors Influencing Agrochemical Use, Practices, and Knowledge Systems: Case Study of Rice Farmers in the Cauvery ... 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Case Study: Factors Influencing Pesticide Use, Practices, and Knowledge Systems-Case Study of Rice Farmers in the Cauvery... 18.3 Social and Demographic Profile of Respondents 18.4 Pesticide Usage Among the Rice Farmers in Tamil Nadu 18.5 Pesticide Knowledge and Practices Among the Rice Farmers 18.6 Conclusion References Part III: Agrochemicals and Environmental Justice: Dynamics, Remediation, and Sustainable Alternatives Chapter 19: Sustainable Approaches for the Remediation of Agrochemicals in the Environment 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Economic Implications of Agrochemicals in Agricultural Development 19.2.1 Health Implications of Agrochemicals 19.2.2 Food Security Implications of Agrochemicals 19.2.3 Ecological Implications of Agrochemicals 19.2.4 Soil Microbial Stability Implications of Agrochemicals 19.3 Recalcitrant Agrochemicals 19.4 Negative Impacts on the Ecosystem and Ecological Function 19.5 Persistence of Pesticides 19.6 Pesticide Degradation 19.7 Sustainable Remediation Strategies 19.7.1 Microbial Remediation 19.7.1.1 Mycoremediation 19.7.1.2 Phytoremediation 19.7.1.3 Vermiremediation 19.8 Genetic Engineering Approach 19.9 Natural Attenuation 19.10 Sustainable Agricultural Method 19.11 Biomonitoring and Impact Assessment Strategies 19.12 Integrated Approach 19.12.1 Chemical-Biological Approach 19.12.2 Phytobial Approach 19.13 Factors Affecting Agrochemical Remediation 19.13.1 Physicochemical Factors 19.13.2 Biological Factors 19.14 Conclusion References Chapter 20: Plant-Based Agro-Biodiversity Solutions for Reducing Agrochemical Use and Effects 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Interaction Between Insects and Plants 20.3 How Pesticide Usage Could Be Minimized? 20.3.1 Growing Local Landraces or Cultivars 20.3.2 Intercropping 20.3.3 Cover Crop and Live Mulches 20.3.4 Habitat Management 20.3.5 Crop Rotation 20.3.6 Trap Cropping 20.4 Conclusion References Chapter 21: Prospects of Insect Farming for Food Security, Environmental Sustainability, and as an Alternative to Agrochemical... 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Implications of the Use of Agrochemicals (Fertilizers and Insecticides) in Agroecosystems 21.2.1 Fertilizers 21.2.2 Insecticides 21.2.2.1 Impacts of Insecticides Use on the Environment (Water, Air, and Soil) 21.2.2.1.1 Impact of Insecticides in Water 21.2.2.1.2 Impact of Insecticides on the Air 21.2.2.1.3 Impact of Insecticides in the Soil 21.2.2.2 Impacts of Insecticides on Insect Biodiversity 21.2.2.3 Impact of Insecticides in Human Health 21.3 Prospects of Insect Farming for Food Security 21.3.1 Feedback on Insect Farming for Food Security 21.3.2 Place Value of Insects and Insect Farming in Human, Animal Health and Environmental Sustainability 21.3.3 Trade and Market Benefits of Insect Farming 21.4 Prospects of Insect Farming as a Sustainable Alternative to Agrochemicals and Other Protein-Based Meals 21.4.1 The Use of Frass as a Core Prospect to Sustainable Crop Farming 21.4.2 The Use of Less Land Mass for Insect Farming Translates to Less Use of Agrochemicals 21.5 Sustainability of Insect Farming via Automated Technology 21.6 Conclusion References Chapter 22: Implications of Agrochemical Application on Soil Fauna and Ecosystem and Their Sustainable Alternatives 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Agrochemical Application and Impacts on Soil Fauna and Ecosystems 22.2.1 Reasons for Agrochemical Application 22.2.2 Types of Agrochemicals, Methods of Application, and Mechanism of Action 22.3 Soil Ecosystem and Fauna Biodiversity 22.3.1 Soil Ecosystem 22.3.2 Soil Fauna Biodiversity 22.4 Soil Fauna Biodiversity in Ecosystem Processes 22.4.1 Enhancement of Decomposition Processes 22.4.2 Increase in Fragmentation Rate 22.4.3 Facilitation of Soil Microbes-Led Decomposition Processes 22.4.3.1 Housing Microbes 22.4.3.2 Stimulation or Increase in Microbial Activity 22.4.3.3 Increase in Microbial Workspace 22.4.4 Provision and Distribution of Soil Resources 22.4.5 Maintenance of Soil-Carrying Capacity 22.4.6 Influencing Soil Structure for Adequate Ecosystem Processes 22.5 Soil Fauna Biodiversity Loss Due to Agrochemical Application 22.5.1 Biodiversity Loss Through Species Richness and Abundance 22.5.2 Biodiversity Loss Through Acidification of Soil 22.5.3 Biodiversity Loss Through Insufficient Supply of Nutrients 22.5.4 Biodiversity Loss Through Climate Pollutant 22.6 Implications of Agrochemical on Biodiversity Loss in a Soil Ecosystem 22.6.1 Accumulation of Soil Organic Content 22.6.2 Inadequate Distribution of Soil Nutrients 22.6.3 Weakening Soil Structure 22.6.4 Suppression of Soil Ecosystem Resiliency 22.6.5 Reduction in Functional Diversity 22.6.6 Promotion of the Incidence of Pests and Diseases 22.7 Sustainable Alternatives to Agrochemical and Prevention of Soil Biodiversity Loss 22.7.1 Sustainable Alternative to Nutrients Loss 22.7.2 Alternatives for Suppression of Pests and Diseases 22.7.3 Sustainable Alternatives for Prevention of Soil Fauna Biodiversity Loss 22.7.4 Sustainable Alternatives for Soil Structure Maintenance 22.8 Conclusion References Chapter 23: Sustainable Agricultural Pest Control Strategies to Boost Food and Socioecological Security: The Allelopathic Stra... 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Inorganic Pesticide Use and Ecosystem Health 23.3 Concept of Allelopathy 23.4 Challenges to the Use of Allelopathy for Pest Control 23.5 Strategies to Boost Allelopathy for Agricultural Pest Control 23.6 Limitations and Future Directions 23.7 Conclusion References Chapter 24: Impacts of Agrochemicals on Fish Composition in Natural Waters: A Sustainable Management Approach 24.1 Introduction 24.1.1 Types of Agrochemicals 24.1.2 The Environment and Sustainable Development Goals 24.1.2.1 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 24.2 Environmental Impacts of Agrochemicals 24.2.1 Agrochemicals in Air and Water Ecosystems 24.2.2 Agrochemicals in Soil 24.2.3 Bioavailability and Factors That Relate to the Fate of Agrochemicals in Natural Waters 24.2.3.1 Effects of Agrochemicals on Water 24.2.3.2 Industrial and Municipal Processes 24.2.3.3 Agricultural Processes 24.2.3.3.1 Crop Production Systems 24.2.3.3.2 Livestock Production System 24.2.3.3.3 Aquaculture Production 24.3 Effects of Agrochemicals on Fish Species 24.3.1 Direct Effects on Fish Species 24.3.1.1 Behavioral Changes in Fish Exposed to Agrochemicals 24.3.1.2 Hematological Alterations in Fish Species Exposed to Agrochemicals 24.3.1.3 Histopathological Changes in Fish Exposed to Agrochemicals 24.3.1.4 Oxidative Stress in Fish Exposed to Agrochemicals 24.3.1.5 Molecular Alterations in Fish Exposed to Agrochemicals 24.4 Sustainable Management Strategies of Agrochemical Usage on the Environment 24.4.1 Strategies for Sustainable Environmental Management 24.4.1.1 Cultural Strategies for Sustainable Environment 24.4.1.2 Physical and Mechanical Strategies 24.4.1.3 Host Plant-Resistant (HPR) Strategy 24.4.1.4 Biological Control Strategy 24.4.1.5 Chemical Control Strategy 24.4.2 Risk and Mitigating Measures in the Use of Agrochemicals 24.4.2.1 Emerging Pollutants 24.5 Conclusion References Chapter 25: Sustainable Alternatives to Agrochemicals and Their Socio-Economic and Ecological Values 25.1 Introduction 25.1.1 The Use of Agrochemicals 25.1.2 Sources of Agrochemical Pollutants 25.1.3 Types of Agrochemicals 25.1.3.1 Pesticides 25.1.3.2 Insecticides 25.1.3.3 Inorganic Insecticides 25.1.3.4 Organic Insecticides 25.1.3.5 Fertilizers 25.1.3.6 Fungicides 25.1.3.7 Herbicides 25.1.3.8 Algaecides 25.1.3.9 Rodenticides 25.1.3.10 Molluscicides 25.1.3.11 Nematicides 25.1.3.12 Liming and Acidifying Agents 25.1.3.13 Soil Conditioners 25.2 Goods and Services Provided by the Environment 25.2.1 Why Are Environments Being Degraded? 25.2.2 Measurement of Environment Values 25.2.3 Goods and Services Provided by the Environment 25.2.3.1 Wetlands 25.2.3.1.1 Goods and Services Wetlands Provide Plant and Livestock Cultivation Fisheries Construction, Craft, and Fuel Wood Hunting for Wildlife and Water Birds 25.2.3.1.2 Threats to Wetlands 25.2.3.2 Forests 25.2.3.2.1 Goods and Services Forest Can Provide Timber Traditional Medicine and Research in Pharmaceuticals Tourism and Recreational Activities Rainfall Regulation, Carbon Storage, and Sequestration Health 25.2.3.2.2 Threats to Forests 25.2.3.3 Agroecosystems 25.2.3.3.1 Agroecosystem services Control of Pests and Diseases Soil Processes Cycling of Nutrients Quality and Quantity of Water Storage of Carbon 25.2.3.3.2 Threats to Agroecosystems 25.2.4 Duties of Stakeholders in Environmental Protection 25.3 Sustainable Alternatives to the Use of Agrochemicals 25.3.1 The Rotterdam Convention 25.3.2 Benefits of Access to Information on Agrochemical Alternatives 25.3.3 Alternatives to the Use of Hazardous Agrochemicals 25.3.3.1 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 25.3.3.1.1 IPM Roles in Sustainable Agriculture 25.3.3.2 The Use of Conservative Agriculture Approach 25.3.3.3 Agroecology 25.3.3.4 Biological Control Practices 25.3.4 Management of Pests and Pesticides 25.3.4.1 The International Code of Conduct 25.3.4.2 Highly Hazardous Pesticides (HHPs) 25.3.4.2.1 Guidelines of HHPs 25.3.4.3 Risk Reduction and Biodiversity Mainstreaming in Agriculture 25.4 Socio-economic Values of Sustainable Alternatives to the Environment 25.4.1 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 25.4.1.1 Socio-economic Values 25.5 Conclusion References Chapter 26: Global Environmental Sustainability and Agrochemical Use 26.1 Introduction 26.1.1 Environmental Sustainability and Sustainability Indices 26.1.2 Environmental Sustainability and Food Production 26.2 Agrochemicals and Air Pollution 26.2.1 Pesticides ́ Presence in the Atmosphere and Health Risk to Humans 26.3 Agrochemicals and Water Pollution 26.3.1 Agrochemicals ́ Presence in Groundwater 26.3.2 Groundwater Pollution by Fertilizer 26.3.3 Groundwater Pollution by Pesticides 26.4 Agrochemicals and Soil Degradation 26.4.1 Negative Impacts of Pesticides on Soil 26.4.1.1 Contamination with Hazardous Chemicals 26.4.1.2 Disturbance of Soil Microbial Mass and Nutrient Transfer 26.4.1.3 Weed Infestation 26.4.2 Burden of Fertilizers on Soil 26.4.2.1 Soil Salinity 26.4.2.2 Soil Erosion and Moisture Loss 26.5 Global Impacts of Local Pollution from the Use of Agrochemicals 26.5.1 Climate Change Impact 26.5.2 Hazardous Chemicals Across Food Chain and Global Food Shortage 26.5.3 Scarcity of Potable Water and Loss of Aquatic Biodiversity 26.6 Mitigating Agrochemical Pollution 26.6.1 Awareness Campaign 26.6.2 Policy, Regulation, and Enforcement 26.6.3 Application of Global Best Practices 26.7 Conclusions References Chapter 27: Impacts of Chemical Use in Agricultural Practices: Perspectives of Soil Microorganisms and Vegetation 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Types and Classifications of Agrochemicals 27.2.1 Herbicides 27.2.1.1 Types of Herbicides 27.2.1.2 Classification of Herbicides 27.2.1.2.1 Classification Based on Translocation Systemic/Translocated Non-systemic/Contact Classification Based on Time of Application Pre-plant Pre-emergence Post-emergence Classification Based on Method of Application Soil Applied Foliar Applied 27.2.1.2.2 Classification Based on Specificity Selective Herbicides Non-selective Herbicides 27.2.1.2.3 Classification Based on Site of Action 27.2.2 Fertilisers 27.2.2.1 Fertilisers Classification 27.2.2.1.1 Based on Nature 27.2.2.1.2 Based on the Form of Fertiliser 27.2.2.1.3 Based on the Complexity of Fertilisers 27.2.2.1.4 Based on the Application of Fertiliser 27.3 Roles of Some Common Chemicals Used in Agriculture 27.3.1 Herbicides in Soils 27.3.2 Roles of Fertiliser in Agriculture 27.4 Effects of Common Chemicals Used in Agriculture 27.4.1 Effects of Herbicides on Soil Microorganisms 27.4.2 Effects of Herbicide on Soil Functions 27.4.3 Effects of Herbicides on Vegetation 27.4.4 Deleterious Effects of Chemical Fertilisers 27.4.5 Effects of Chemical Fertiliser on Soil Pollution 27.5 Impacts of Common Chemicals Used in Agriculture on Soil Microorganisms 27.5.1 Impacts of Herbicides on Soil Microorganisms 27.5.2 Impacts of Fertilisers on Microorganisms 27.6 Impacts of Common Chemicals Used in Agriculture on Vegetation 27.6.1 Impacts of Herbicides on Vegetation 27.6.2 Impacts of Chemical Fertilisers on Vegetation 27.7 Problems Associated with Current Approaches of Chemical Application for Agricultural Productivity 27.7.1 Risks Associated with Herbicides 27.8 Management and Sustainability Approach 27.9 Conclusion References Chapter 28: Eco-Farming for Sustainability: Defending Our Way of Life Against Agrochemicals 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Human Way of Life and One Health 28.3 Ecological Intensification in Farming Systems: Principles and Practices 28.4 Eco-Farming: Science of Farming with Nature 28.5 Eco-Farming for Ecosystem Services 28.6 Eco-Farming: Strategy to Feed the World and Save Biodiversity 28.7 Agrochemicals: Critique and Alternatives 28.8 Agrochemicals Usage and Its Consequences on Ecosystem Sustainability 28.9 Agrochemical to Organic Inputs for Eco-Farming Sustainability 28.10 Managing Eco-Farming for Offsetting C Footprints 28.11 Strategic P