Omics technologies and bio-engineering. Volume 1, Emerging fields, animal and medical biotechnologies : towards improving quality of life

Omics Technologies and Bio-Engineering: Towards Improving Quality of Life, Volume 1 is a unique reference that brings together multiple perspectives on omics research, providing in-depth analysis and insights from an international team of authors. The book delivers pivotal information that will inform and improve medical and biological research by helping readers gain more direct access to analytic data, an increased understanding on data evaluation, and a comprehensive picture on how to use omics data in molecular biology, biotechnology and human health care. Covers various aspects of biotechnology and bio-engineering using omics technologies Focuses on the latest developments in the field, including biofuel technologies Provides key insights into omics approaches in personalized and precision medicine Provides a complete picture on how one can utilize omics data in molecular biology, biotechnology and human health care Dedication Dedication List of contributors List of Contributors About the editors About the Editors Contents 1-5 Contents 5-11 Contents 12-17 Contents 18-23 Contents 23-25 Chapter 01 1 Overview and Principles of Bioengineering: The Drivers of Omics Technologies 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Science of “Omics” 1.2 Genomics 1.3 Transcriptomics 1.4 Proteomics 1.5 Metabolomics 1.6 Glycomics 1.7 Omics-Driven Bioengineering 1.7.1 Cellular Engineering 1.7.2 Enzyme Engineering 1.7.3 Metabolic Engineering 1.8 Bioinformatics Intervention in Omics 1.9 Applications of Omics 1.9.1 Food and Agriculture Sector 1.9.2 Health Sector 1.9.3 Environmental Sector 1.10 Conclusion References Chapter 02 2 Omics Approaches Towards Transforming Personalized Medicine 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Personalized Medicine 2.3 Pharmacogenomics of Various Disorders 2.3.1 Cancer 2.3.2 Cardiovascular Diseases 2.3.3 Infectious Diseases 2.3.4 Immune Disorders 2.4 Applications of Pharmacogenomics 2.4.1 Personalized Medicine 2.4.2 Drug Discovery 2.5 Companion Diagnostics 2.6 Limitations of Pharmacogenomics 2.7 Future Prospects 2.8 Conclusion References Further Reading Chapter 03 3 Omics Approaches in Marine Biotechnology: The Treasure of Ocean for Human Betterments 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Impact of Omics on Marine Biotechnology 3.3 Omics-driven Marine Biotechnology 3.3.1 Genomics 3.3.2 Proteomics 3.3.3 Transcriptomics 3.3.4 Nutrigenomics 3.3.5 Metabolomics 3.4 Challenges and Future Opportunities 3.4.1 Marine Food 3.4.2 Marine Energy 3.4.3 Human Health 3.5 Conclusion References Chapter 04 4 Synthetic Biology: Overview and Applications 4.1 Introduction 4.2 History 4.3 Biology and Chemistry 4.3.1 Cell 4.3.2 Animal Cell 4.3.3 Plant Cell 4.3.4 Function of a Cell 4.3.5 Chemistry 4.3.6 Chemical Composition of a Cell 4.4 Craft and Design 4.4.1 Engineering 4.4.2 Synthetic Morphology 4.4.3 Synthetic Chemistry 4.4.4 Minimal Cell 4.4.5 Rewriting 4.5 Technology 4.5.1 Polypeptides and Proteins 4.5.2 Polynucleotides and DNA and RNA 4.5.3 Restriction Endonucleases 4.5.4 DNA Amplification and Sequencing 4.5.5 DNA and Protein Transfer 4.5.6 Systems Biology 4.5.7 Measurements and Calculations 4.6 Applications 4.6.1 Fundamental and Applied Synthetic Biology 4.6.2 Artificial Life 4.6.3 Biosensor 4.6.4 Synthetic Biological Circuits 4.6.5 Industrial Scale Applications 4.7 Examples 4.7.1 Synthetic Biology Today 4.7.2 Applications 4.7.3 iGEM 4.8 Ethics and Safety 4.8.1 Society, Ethics, and Synthetic Biology 4.8.2 Safety Regulations 4.8.3 Safe Human Practices 4.8.4 Technology Transfer 4.9 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 4.9.1 Promises of Synthetic Biology 4.9.2 Challenges References Weblinks Chapter 05 5 Reverse Engineering and Its Applications 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Applications of Reverse Engineering 5.2.1 Medical Device Design 5.2.2 Pharmaceutical Product Design 5.2.3 Reverse Engineering in Therapeutic Peptide Production 5.2.4 Reverse Engineering in Bioinformatics 5.2.5 Reverse Engineering in Biosystems 5.2.6 Reverse Engineering in Software Design 5.2.7 Reverse Engineering of Software 5.2.8 Reverse Engineering Human Regulatory Networks 5.3 Laws, Economics, and Ethics Governing Reverse Engineering 5.4 Conclusion 5.4 Future Direction References Further Reading Chapter 06 6 Omics Approaches in Forensic Biotechnology: Looking for Ancestry to Offence 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Importance of Omics Approaches in Studying DNA 6.2.1 The DNA 6.2.2 The Genomic Approach 6.2.3 The Transcriptomic Approach 6.2.4 The Proteomics Approach 6.2.5 The Metabolomics Approach 6.2.6 The Toxicogenetics/Pharmacogenetics Approach 6.3 Ancestry and Phylogeny 6.4 DNA Fingerprinting 6.4.1 History 6.4.2 What is DNA Profiling? 6.4.3 Sample Collection From the Suspect 6.4.4 The Process of DNA Extraction 6.4.5 Various Techniques and Analysis Employed in DNA Profiling 6.4.5.1 Dideoxy Method 6.4.5.2 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms 6.4.5.3 Variable Number Tandem Repeats/Minisatellites 6.4.5.4 STRs/Microsatellites 6.4.5.5 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms 6.4.5.6 Analysis of Degraded or Low Template DNA 6.5 Studying Parenthood 6.5.1 Mitochondrial DNA Analysis 6.5.2 Y-Chromosome Analysis 6.5.3 Forensic DNA Phenotyping 6.6 Application of Omics in Criminology 6.6.1 DNA Databases 6.7 Conclusion References Further Reading Chapter 07 7 Biotechnology and Bioengineering in Astrobiology: Towards a New Habitat for Us 7.1 Introduction to Astrobiotechnology and Astrobioengineering 7.2 Biotechnological Approaches in Detecting Life in Space 7.3 Integration of Biotechnology and Astrobiology 7.4 Advanced Integrated Technologies in Astrobiology for Finding Adequate Habitat Conditions 7.4.1 Proteins (Antibodies)-Based Approaches 7.4.2 Microfluidics 7.4.3 Microarray Technology 7.5 Solar System Exploration 7.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Further Reading Chapter 08 8 Lab-on-a-Chip Technology and Its Applications 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Diagnostics 8.1.1.1 DNA Extraction and Purification on LOC Devices 8.1.1.2 PCR, qPCR, and Molecular Detection on LOC Devices 8.1.2 Genomic Application 8.1.3 Microarray 8.1.4 Biochemical Applications 8.1.5 Proteomics 8.1.6 Biosensors 8.1.7 Cell Research 8.1.8 Drug Development 8.2. Conclusion and Future Directions References Further Reading Chapter 09 9 Robotics and High-Throughput Techniques 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Technologies in Biorobotics 9.1.2 Soft Robotics 9.1.2.1 Structure 9.1.2.2 Bio-inspired Soft Robots 9.1.2.3 Advantages 9.2 Wonders in the Field of Biorobotics 9.2.1 Techniques Used in Biorobotics 9.2.1.1 Electromyography 9.2.1.2 Electroencephalography: Brain–Computer Interfaces or Brain–Machine Interfaces 9.2.1.3 Hybrid EEG–EMG Control Interface 9.2.1.4 Plant Roots–Inspired Robotic Solutions: The PLANTOID Robot 9.2.1.5 Sperm-driven Micro-Biorobot 9.2.1.6 Robotic Cell Injection 9.2.1.7 Biorobotics in Medicine 9.2.1.8 Natural Orifice Surgery Through Biorobotics 9.3 Future Perspective References Further Reading Chapter 10 10 3D Printing Technologies and Their Applications in Biomedical Science 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Types of Printers 10.2.1 Stereolithography 10.2.1.1 Parts of Stereolithographic Machine 10.2.2 Fused Deposition Modeling 10.2.3 Inkjet Printing 10.2.4 Selective Sintering Printing 10.2.5 Laminated Object Manufacturing 10.3 Application of 3D Printing 10.3.1 Craniofacial Plastic Surgery 10.3.2 Skull Reconstruction 10.3.3 Cranioplasty for Correction of Syndromic Craniosynostosis 10.3.4 Facial Bone Fractures 10.3.5 Mandibular Reconstruction 10.3.6 Human Skin 10.3.7 Tissue Engineering 10.3.8 Ears 10.3.9 Cartilage 10.3.10 Heart Valve 10.3.11 Tooth and Peridontal Regeneration 10.4 Oncology and 3D Printing 10.4.1 Cancer Microenvironment Engineering for In Vitro 3D models 10.5 Future Directions References Chapter 11 11 Next-Generation Sequencing and Data Analysis: Strategies, Tools, Pipelines and Protocols 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Sequencing Platforms 11.2.1 Illumina Platform 11.2.2 Ion Torrent Platform 11.2.3 PacBio Platform 11.3 Structural Genomics 11.3.1 De Novo Assembly 11.3.2 Reference Assembly 11.3.3 Genome Annotation 11.4 Functional Genomics 11.4.1 RNA-Seq: De Novo and Reference-Based Approaches 11.4.2 ChIP-Seq 11.5 Protocols and Pipelines for Metagenomic Analysis 11.5.1 Analysis of the Microbial Diversity Through PCR Targeting 16S rRNA Genes 11.5.2 Whole-Genome Metagenomic Analysis 11.5.3 Obtaining Genomes From Metagenomic Data 11.6 Future Directions References Chapter 12 12 Computational Techniques in Data Integration and Big Data Handling in Omics 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Big Data Concept 12.3 The Three V’s 12.3.1 Volume 12.3.2 Velocity 12.3.3 Variability in Data Origin 12.4 Big Data on Computational Biology Applications 12.5 Tools for Analysis 12.6 Future Direction About Big Data References Chapter 13 13 Bioinformatics and Systems Biology in Bioengineering 13.1 Bioinformatics and Major Databases 13.2 Systems Biology—A Brief Overview 13.2.1 Mathematical Representations and Modeling 13.3 Reverse Engineering of Network Interactions 13.3.1 Correlation 13.3.2 Information Theory 13.3.3 Bayesian Inference 13.4 Bioengineering and Systems Biology 13.4.1 Synthetic Biology 13.4.2 Tissue Engineering 13.5 From Biological Networks to Modern Therapeutics 13.5.1 Disease Modeling 13.5.2 Drug Modeling 13.6 Bioinformatics Tools and Resources 13.7 Future Advancements 13.8 Conclusion References Chapter 14 14 Techniques for Nucleic Acid Engineering: The Foundation of Gene Manipulation 14.1 Nucleic Acid Isolation Techniques 14.1.1 Introduction 14.1.2 Basics of Nucleic Acid Isolation: A Brief Introduction 14.1.3 Components of Nucleic Acid Isolation 14.1.3.1 Cell Disruption (Cell Lysis) 14.1.3.1.1 Chemical Lysis 14.1.3.1.2 Mechanical Lysis: Methods Involve Grinding, Shearing, Beating, and Shock 14.1.3.2 Removal of Artifacts 14.1.3.3 Precipitation 14.1.3.4 Washing and Resuspension 14.1.4 Principles of Methods of Extraction 14.1.4.1 Organic Methods 14.1.4.1.1 Phenol–Chloroform Method 14.1.4.1.2 Guanidinium Thiocyanate–Phenol–Chloroform Method (Commercial Names: TRI, TRIzol) 14.1.4.1.3 Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide Method 14.1.4.2 Inorganic Methods 14.1.4.2.1 Salting-Out Method 14.1.4.2.2 Cesium Chloride Density Gradient Method 14.1.4.3 Solid-Based Extraction Method 14.1.4.3.1 Silica-Based Purification 14.1.4.3.2 Magnetic Separation 14.1.4.3.3 Anion Exchange Purification 14.1.4.3.4 FTA Technology (Trademark of General Electric Company): A Fast Technology for Analysis of Nucleic Acids 14.1.5 Automation and High-Throughput Technology 14.1.6 Choosing the Method 14.1.6.1 Genomic DNA Isolation 14.1.6.2 RNA Isolation 14.1.6.3 Plasmid DNA Isolation 14.1.6.4 Mitochondrial DNA Isolation 14.1.6.5 Viral DNA/RNA Isolation 14.1.6.6 Plant DNA/RNA and Chloroplast DNA Isolation 14.1.6.7 DNA/RNA Isolation From Other Materials 14.1.6.7.1 Paraffin Blocks 14.1.6.7.2 Ancient Bone DNA Isolation 14.1.7 Quality Control 14.1.7.1 Agarose Gel Electrophoresis Control 14.1.7.1.1 Checking GDNA 14.1.7.1.2 Checking Total RNA 14.1.7.2 Spectrophotometry 14.1.7.3 Microfluidics-Based High-Throughput Technology 14.1.8 GLP for Nucleic Acid Isolation 14.1.8.1 A Room of Its Own 14.1.8.2 Sampling 14.1.8.3 Extraction 14.1.8.4 Post Processes 14.1.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 14.2 Restriction Enzyme Techniques 14.2.1 The Discovery of Restriction Enzymes (Endonucleases) 14.2.2 Where Are They Found? 14.2.3 Mechanism of Their Action 14.2.4 Classification of Restriction Enzyme Types 14.2.4.1 Infidelity Among the Restriction Enzymes 14.2.5 Examples of Restriction Enzymes 14.2.5.1 Sticky-End (Cohesive) Cutters 14.2.5.2 Blunt-End Cutters 14.2.5.3 Utilization of Restriction Enzymes in Biotechnology 14.2.5.4 Detecting SNPs (PCR Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) 14.2.5.5 Gene Cloning 14.2.5.6 DNA Footprinting 14.2.5.7 Artificial Restriction Enzymes 14.2.5.8 Restriction Endonuclease Utilization in Diagnostics 14.2.6 Restriction Enzyme Digestion Protocol 14.2.7 Summary 14.3 PCR Techniques 14.3.1 PCR Chronicle 14.3.2 PCR Reaction Components 14.3.2.1 PCR Primer Design 14.3.2.2 PCR Steps 14.3.2.3 PCR Optimization 14.3.2.3.1 PCR Buffer Concentration 14.3.2.3.2 DNA Polymerase Enzyme of Choice 14.3.3 PCR Instrumentation 14.3.3.1 Applied Biosystems 14.3.3.2 Bio-Rad 14.3.3.3 Eppendorf 14.3.4 Recent Advances in PCR Technology and Its Applications 14.3.4.1 Hot Start PCR 14.3.4.2 Reverse Transcriptase PCR 14.3.4.3 Droplet Digital PCR 14.3.4.4 Long PCR 14.3.4.5 Multiplex PCR 14.3.4.6 Colony PCR 14.3.4.7 Nested PCR 14.3.4.8 Quantitative Real-Time PCR 14.3.4.9 PCR Site-Directed Mutagenesis 14.3.4.10 Other PCR Techniques 14.4 Blotting Techniques 14.4.1 General Principle 14.4.1.1 Southern Blotting 14.4.1.1.1 The Order of Sequence of Southern Blot Analysis 14.4.1.1.2 Southern Blot Applications 14.4.1.2 Northern Blotting 14.4.1.2.1 Northern Blot Protocol 14.4.1.2.1.1 RNA Gels 14.4.1.2.2 The Order of Sequence of Northern Blot Analysis 14.4.1.2.3 Applications of Northern Blots 14.4.1.3 Western Blotting 14.4.1.3.1 The Order of Sequence of Western Blot Analysis 14.4.1.3.2 Western Blot Applications 14.4.2 Western Blot Instrumentation 14.4.2.1 Bio-Rad 14.4.2.2 ProteinSimple 14.4.2.3 Life Technologies 14.4.2.4 Additional Blotting Techniques 14.4.2.4.1 Dot Blot 14.4.2.4.2 Reverse Dot Blot 14.4.2.4.2.1 Power of Blotting 14.4.2.4.2.2 Limitations of Blotting 14.5 Recombinant DNA Techniques 14.5.1 Creation of Recombinant (Artificial) DNA 14.5.2 Chimeric/rDNA 14.5.2.1 Steps of Cloning DNA Fragments (Gene Cloning) to Create rDNA 14.5.3 Expression of rDNA 14.5.4 Applications of rDNA Technology 14.5.5 Controversy of rDNA 14.5.6 Genetically Modified Organisms 14.5.7 Genetically Modified Food 14.6 DNA Sequencing Technologies 14.6.1 Brief Introduction 14.6.2 First-Generation Sequencing Techniques 14.6.2.1 Maxam’s and Gilbert’s Chemical Method 14.6.2.2 Sanger Sequencing 14.6.3 Automation in DNA Sequencing 14.6.4 Developments and High-Throughput Methods in DNA Sequencing 14.6.4.1 Pyrosequencing Method 14.6.4.2 The Genome Sequencer 454 FLX System 14.6.4.3 Illumina/Solexa Genome Analyzer 14.6.5 Transition Sequencing Techniques 14.6.5.1 Ion-Torrent’s Semiconductor Sequencing 14.6.5.2 Helico’s Genetic Analysis Platform 14.6.6 Third-Generation Sequencing Techniques 14.7 Conclusion References Chapter 15 15 Techniques for Protein Analysis 15.1 Protein Identification 15.1.1 Sequencing 15.1.1.1 Determining Amino Acid Composition With Hydrolysis 15.1.1.2 Quantitative Analysis 15.1.2 Edman Degradation 15.1.2.1 The Edman Degradation Reaction 15.1.2.2 Limitations of the Edman Degradation 15.1.3 Gel Electrophoresis 15.1.3.1 Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis 15.1.3.2 Isoelectric Focusing 15.1.3.3 Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis 15.1.4 Isotope Labeling 15.1.4.1 Enzymatic Labeling 15.1.4.2 Isotope-Coded Affinity Tag 15.1.4.3 Stable-Isotope Labeling in Cell Culture 15.1.5 Mass Spectrometry 15.1.5.1 Principle and Instrumentation 15.1.5.2 Components of the Instrument 15.1.5.2.1 Device for Sample Input Into the Machine 15.1.5.2.2 Molecular Ionization Source 15.1.5.2.3 Mass Analyzer 15.1.5.2.4 Detector 15.1.5.2.5 Vacuum System and Computer-Based Data Obtaining and Processing System 15.1.5.3 Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry 15.1.5.4 Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry 15.1.5.5 Tandem Mass Spectrometry 15.1.6 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay 15.1.6.1 Indirect ELISA 15.1.6.2 Sandwich ELISA 15.1.6.3 Competitive ELISA 15.1.6.4 Reverse ELISA 15.1.7 Immunohistochemistry 15.1.7.1 Sample Preparation 15.1.7.2 Sample Labeling 15.1.7.3 Sample Visualization 15.1.7.4 Applications 15.2 Protein Structural Analysis 15.2.1 Circular Dichroism 15.2.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 15.2.3 X-Ray Crystallography 15.2.4 Electron Microscopy 15.3 Protein Purification 15.3.1 Chromatography 15.3.1.1 Column Chromatography 15.3.1.2 Size-Exclusion (Gel-Filtration) Chromatography 15.3.1.3 Ion-Exchange Chromatography 15.3.1.4 Affinity Chromatography 15.3.1.5 Reverse Phase High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 15.4 Protein Quantitation With Western Blotting 15.4.1 Tissue Preparation 15.4.2 Gel Electrophoresis 15.4.3 Transfer Methods 15.4.4 Blocking Buffers 15.4.5 Detection 15.4.5.1 Colorimetric Detection 15.4.5.2 Chemiluminescent Detection 15.4.5.3 Radioactive Detection 15.4.5.4 Fluorescent Detection 15.4.6 Protein Microarray 15.4.6.1 Analytical Microarray 15.4.6.2 Functional Protein Microarray 15.4.6.3 Reverse Phase Protein Array 15.5 Conclusion References Chapter 16 16 Engineering Monoclonal Antibodies: Production and Applications 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Structures and Functions of Antibodies 16.2.1 Polyclonal Antibodies 16.2.2 Monoclonal Antibodies 16.2.2.1 Production of Monoclonal Antibodies 16.2.2.1.1 Monoclonal Antibody Production by Hybridoma Technique 16.2.2.1.2 Monoclonal Antibody Production by Phage-Display Technique 16.2.2.1.3 Monoclonal Antibody Production Using Transgenic Animals 16.2.2.1.4 Production of Antibodies in Transgenic Plants 16.3 Clinical Usage of the Antibodies 16.3.1 Antibodies in Diagnosis 16.3.1.1 ELISA 16.3.1.2 Western Blotting 16.3.1.3 Flow Cytometric Analyses 16.3.1.4 Immunhistochemistry 16.3.1.4.1 Tissue Preparation 16.3.1.4.2 Antigen Retrieval 16.3.1.4.3 Detection Methods 16.3.1.5 Immunoelectrophoresis 16.3.1.6 Immunodiffusion 16.3.2 Antibodies in Treatment 16.3.2.1 Hematology/Oncology 16.3.2.2 Transplantation 16.3.2.3 Cardiology 16.3.2.4 Infection 16.3.2.5 Rheumatology 16.3.2.6 Gastroenterology 16.3.2.7 FDA-Approved Monoclonal Antibodies 16.4 Conclusion References Weblinks Chapter 17 17 Cell and Tissue Culture: The Base of Biotechnology 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Cell Culture Laboratory 17.2.1 Safety 17.2.2 Cell Culture Equipment and Laboratory Design 17.2.3 Aseptic Technique 17.2.4 Cross Contamination 17.2.5 Biological Contamination 17.3 Cell Culture 17.3.1 Cell Culture System 17.3.2 Cell Line and Culture Monitoring 17.3.3 Primary Culture 17.3.4 Cell Isolation 17.3.5 Culture Environment 17.3.6 Cell Morphology 17.3.7 Cells 17.3.8 Stem Cells 17.4 Methods 17.4.1 Growth and Maintenance of Cells in Culture 17.4.2 Subculturing Adherent Cells 17.4.3 Subculturing Suspension Cells 17.4.4 Viability and Proliferation Assay of Cultured Cells 17.4.5 Freezing Cells (Cryopreservation) 17.4.6 Thawing Frozen Cells 17.4.7 Transplantation of Cultured Cells 17.4.8 Differentiation of Cells 17.4.9 Characterization of Cells 17.4.10 Apoptosis, Necrosis, Senescence, and Quiescence 17.4.11 Senescence 17.4.12 Quiescence 17.4.13 Production From Cell Culture 17.5 Conclusion References Chapter 18 18 In Vitro and In Vivo Animal Models: The Engineering Towards Understanding Human Diseases and Therapeutic Interventions 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Mouse Model 18.2.1 LDLR−/− Mice 18.2.2 ApoE−/− Mice 18.2.3 Transgenic Mice of Cardiovascular Diseases 18.2.4 Diabetes-Accelerated Atherosclerosis Mouse Model 18.2.5 Calcium Chloride–Induced AAA 18.2.6 Spontaneous Mouse Mutants 18.2.7 Mouse Model for Liver Metastases 18.2.8 Mouse Model of Colon Cancer 18.2.9 Mouse Model of Fatty Liver Disease 18.2.10 Mouse Models for Neurodegenerative Diseases 18.2.11 Primary Neuronal Cultures and Neuronal Cell Lines 18.2.12 Primary Microglia Cultures 18.2.13 Transgenic Mouse of PD 18.2.14 Transgenic Mouse Model for Alzheimer’s Disease 18.2.15 Animal Models of Heart Failure 18.2.15.1 Localized Aortic Perfusion With Elastase 18.2.15.2 Decellularized Xenografts 18.3 Rat Models 18.3.1 Rat Models for Celiac Disease 18.3.2 Nile Grass Rats 18.4 Porcine Models 18.4.1 Gottingen Miniature Pig Model 18.4.2 Transgenic Huntington Disease Minipigs 18.4.3 Transgenic Pig Model of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 18.4.4 Pig Models for Ataxia Telangiectasia 18.4.5 Pig Models for Myocardial Infarction 18.5 Zebrafish Model 18.5.1 Zebrafish Models of Epilepsy 18.5.2 Zebrafish Model of AD 18.5.3 Zebrafish Model of PD 18.6 Rabbit Models 18.6.1 Rabbit Model of Inflammation-Associated Atherosclerosis 18.6.2 Rabbit Model for Myocardial Damage 18.7 Conclusion References Further Reading Chapter 19 19 Medical Biotechnology: Techniques and Applications 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Background of Medical Biotechnology 19.2.1 Techniques 19.2.1.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction 19.2.1.2 Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization 19.2.1.3 Sequencing 19.2.1.4 Microarrays 19.2.1.5 Cell Culture 19.2.1.6 Interference RNA 19.2.1.7 Genome Editing 19.2.2 Emerging Trends 19.2.2.1 Stem Cells 19.2.2.2 The Human Genome Project 19.2.2.3 Recombinant DNA Technology 19.3 Products of Medical Biotechnology 19.3.1 Antibiotics 19.3.2 Recombinant Proteins 19.3.3 Hybridoma and MAb 19.3.4 Vaccines 19.3.5 Stem Cell Therapy 19.3.6 Tissue Engineering 19.4 Conclusion References Chapter 20 20 Tissue Engineering: Towards Development of Regenerative and Transplant Medicine 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Types of Cells (Proliferation and Differentiation) 20.3 Scaffolds 20.3.1 ECM Scaffolds 20.3.2 Natural Biomaterials 20.3.3 Synthetic Biomaterials 20.3.4 Scaffold-Free Strategies 20.4 Biomolecules Importance in Tissue Engineering 20.5 Assembly Methods of a Tissue Culture and Its Maintenance 20.5.1 Engineering Design Aspects 20.5.2 Biomechanical Aspects of Design (Bioreactors) 20.6 Regeneration of a Damaged Tissue Using Tissue Engineering 20.6.1 Blood Vessels 20.6.2 Skin 20.6.3 Bone and Cartilage 20.6.4 Cardiovascular Diseases 20.7 The Formation of Bioartificial Organs Using Cell-Based Tissue Engineering 20.7.1 Liver 20.7.2 Bladder 20.7.3 Kidney 20.8 Cell Therapies in Tissue Engineering 20.9 Use of Stem Cells and Therapeutic Cloning in Tissue Engineering 20.10 Aid of Nanotechnology in Tissue Engineering 20.11 The Challenges of Tissue Engineering 20.12 Conclusion and Future Prospects 20.12.1 Conclusion References Chapter 21 21 Therapeutic Aspects of Stem Cells in Regenerative Medicine 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Characteristics of Stem Cells Suitable for Regenerative Medicine 21.3 Policies of United States and Other Nations in the Field of Stem Cell Research 21.4 Stem Cells in Regenerative Medicine of Different Diseases 21.4.1 Spinal Cord Injuries 21.4.2 Heart and Vascular System 21.4.3 Periodontal Diseases 21.4.4 Ocular Diseases 21.4.5 Diabetes 21.4.6 Skin Wounds and Burns 21.4.7 Ischemic Limb Disease 21.4.8 Bone, Cartilage, and Muscle-Related Abnormalities 21.4.9 Neurological Disorder 21.4.10 Cancers 21.4.11 Liver Injury and Cirrhosis 21.4.12 Muscular Dystrophy 21.5 Challenges in Stem Cell Research 21.6 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 22 22 Genetic Engineering: Towards Gene Therapy and Molecular Medicine 22.1 Introduction: Gene Therapy and Molecular Medicine 22.1.1 Germinal Gene Therapy 22.1.2 Somatic Gene Therapy 22.2 Historical Significance 22.3 Gene Transfer Strategy: Delivery Vehicle 22.3.1 Viral Vectors: Gene Therapy 22.3.1.1 Retroviral Vectors 22.3.1.2 Adenovirus-Based Vectors 22.3.2 Nonviral Vectors: Liposome 22.4 Clinical Trials (In Vivo and Ex Vivo): An update 22.5 Gene Therapy and Disease/Disorders 22.5.1 Gene Therapy and Hemophilia 22.5.2 Gene Therapy and Cardiovascular Disorders 22.5.2.1 Angiogenic Gene Therapy 22.5.2.2 Non-Angiogenic Gene Therapy 22.5.2.3 Combination Therapy 22.5.3 Gene Therapy and Diabetes 22.5.4 Gene Therapy and Neurological Disorders 22.5.4.1 Parkinson’s Disease 22.5.4.2 Alzheimer’s disease 22.5.5 Gene Therapy and HIV Infection 22.5.5.1 Genetic Approaches to Inhibit HIV Replication 22.5.5.2 Transdominant Negative Proteins 22.5.5.3 Single-Chain Antibodies (Intrabodies) 22.5.5.4 Endogenous Cellular Proteins as Anti-HIV Agents 22.5.5.5 Nucleic Acid–Based Gene Therapy Approaches: RNA Decoys 22.5.5.6 Antisense DNA and RNA 22.5.5.7 Ribozymes (Catalytic Antisense RNA) 22.5.5.8 DNA Vaccines 22.5.5.9 HIV-Specific Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes 22.5.6 Gene Therapy and Various Cancers 22.5.6.1 Gene Therapy and Hematological Malignancy 22.5.6.2 Gene Therapy and Oral Cancer 22.5.6.3 Gene Therapy and Breast Cancer 22.5.6.4 Gene Therapy and Ovarian Cancer 22.5.6.5 Gene Therapy and Lung Cancer 22.5.6.6 Gene Therapy and Prostate Cancer 22.6 Obstacles and Barriers 22.6.1 Activation and Delivery of Gene 22.6.2 Controlled Gene Expression 22.6.3 Activation of Immune Response 22.6.4 Commercially Unviable 22.6.5 Safety Issues 22.7 Conclusions and Future Prospective References Chapter 23 23 Biotechnology for Biomarkers: Towards Prediction, Screening, Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Therapy 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Evolution of Biomarkers 23.3 Classification of Biomarkers 23.3.1 Susceptibility Biomarkers 23.3.1.1 Infectious Diseases 23.3.1.2 Cardiovascular Diseases 23.3.1.3 Rheumatoid Arthritis 23.3.2 Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers 23.3.2.1 Cancer 23.3.2.2 Rheumatoid Arthritis 23.3.3 Therapeutic Biomarkers 23.3.3.1 Infectious Diseases 23.3.3.2 Cardiology 23.3.3.3 Rheumatoid Arthritis 23.4 Food and Drug Administration–Approved Biomarkers 23.5 Biomarkers for Drug Discovery and Development 23.6 Regulatory Issues 23.7 Future Prospects 23.8 Conclusion References Further Reading Chapter 24 24 Omics Approaches in In Vitro Fertilization 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Historical Aspects 24.3 Human IVF 24.4 Benefits of IVF 24.5 Omics Approaches in IVF 24.5.1 Genomics in IVF 24.5.2 Transcriptomics in IVF 24.5.3 Proteomics in IVF 24.5.4 Metabolomics in IVF 24.5.5 Pharmacogenomics of IVF 24.6 Techniques and Protocols Involved in Different Steps of IVF and Embryo Transfer 24.7 Variations of IVF 24.8 Success Rates of IVF 24.9 Complications of IVF 24.10 Cost and Convenience 24.10.1 Clinical Factors 24.10.2 Patient Factors 24.10.3 Medications 24.10.4 Precycle Costs 24.10.5 Cycle Costs 24.10.5.1 Embryo Freezing Costs 24.11 Challenges and Issues 24.11.1 Ethical 24.11.2 Social 24.11.3 Religious 24.11.4 Psychological and Emotional 24.12 Legal Issues 24.13 Conclusion and Future Prospective References Chapter 25 25 Safety and Ethics in Biotechnology and Bioengineering: What to Follow and What Not to 25.1 Introduction 25.1.1 Addressing Ethical Issues 25.1.2 Organizations Framing Research Ethics in Biotechnology and Bioengineering 25.1.3 Ethical Concern in Agriculture 25.1.3.1 Sustainable Agriculture 25.1.3.2 Transgenic Plants 25.1.4 Impact of Biotechnology and Bioengineering on Animals 25.1.4.1 Transgenic Animals 25.1.5 Ethical Concerns of Xenotransplantation 25.1.6 Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research 25.1.7 Ethical Issues in Aquaculture Industry 25.1.8 Ethics in Biobanking 25.1.8.1 Biosafety Issues of Modern Biotechnology and Bioengineering 25.1.8.2 Adverse Effect on Health of People/Environment 25.1.8.3 Unpredictable and Unintended effects 25.1.8.4 Impacts on Socioeconomic Welfare of Countries and of Communities 25.1.8.5 Impact of Traditional Values and Culture 25.1.8.6 Ethical Issues in Medical Biotechnology 25.1.8.7 Protecting Human Beings in Clinical Trials 25.1.8.8 Accountability 25.1.8.9 Affordability 25.1.8.10 Privacy 25.1.8.11 Intellectual Property Rights 25.2 Conclusion References Further Reading Index Index