Old Kingdom Copper Tools and Model Tools (Archaeopress Egyptology)

The Old Kingdom of Egypt (Dynasties 4–6, c. 2600–2180 BC) is famous as a period of the builders of the largest Egyptian pyramids. It is generally accepted that the evidence on the use of copper alloy tools from this era is meagre. Martin Odler gathers the textual, iconographic and palaeographic evidence and examines Old Kingdom artefacts in order to revise this view on the use of copper alloy tools and model tools. Furthermore, he provides updated definitions of tool classes and tool kits, together with the context of their use. Besides rare specimens of full-size tools, the largest corpora of the material have been preserved in the form of model tools in the burial equipment of the Old Kingdom elite and were most probably symbols of their power to commission and fund craftwork. Moreover, the size and elaboration of the model tools were probably connected to the social status of the buried persons. The long-standing division in the Egyptological literature between full-size tools and model tools is questioned. The ancient sources also enable to show that the preservation of material culture from the Old Kingdom was largely dependent on a conscious selection made within the past culture, with completely different settlement and funerary contexts and a conspicuous absence of weapons. The volume is completed by co-authored case studies on archaeometallurgy of selected Old Kingdom artefacts in the collection of the Egyptian Museum of Leipzig University, on morphometry of Old Kingdom adze blades and on the finds of stone and ceramic vessels associated with the findings of so-called Old Kingdom model tools. Title Page 3 Copyright Page 4 Contents 3 OLE_LINK1 297 Figure 1: Map of sites with Old Kingdom copper tools and model tools (Martin Odler in software qGIS, map: Natural Earth). 27 Figure 2: Shortcuts of the sites in the text and in the catalogue 28 Figure 3: Classification of the artefacts and their relation to emic and etic categories (drawing by Martin Odler, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 36 Figure 4: Analyses of the chemical composition of Old Kingdom tools and model tools 39 Figure 5: Semiotic triangle of meaning (drawing by Martin Odler, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 41 Figure 6: Semiotic triangle of meaning applied to Old Kingdom copper tools and models tools (drawing by Martin Odler, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 41 Figure 7: Ancient Egyptian measures of length (based on Rossi 2004, Table 2) 43 Figure 8: Scale used for drawings of the Old Kingdom copper tools. Ancient Egyptian measures are measured from right to left, centimetres are displayed from left to right (drawing by Martin Odler, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Ins 43 Figure 9: Structure of the database of Old Kingdom copper tools and model tools 46 Figure 10: The updated basic model of the structure of administration in the capital during the Old Kingdom (after Dulíková 2016, 58, Fig. 4.1, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 47 Figure 11: Saqqara, weighing of adze blades in the tomb of Kaemrehu (icon76, after Mogensen 1921, Fig. 42, corrected drawing of the adze blades based on the original exhibited in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, drawing by Markéta Kobierská) 52 Figure 12: Offering lists and tool names (composed after Köhler - Jones 2009, 148–149, with kind permission by C. E. Köhler; AEIN 896b, © Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. Photo: Ole Haupt; drawing by Markéta Kobierská after Smith 1933, Pl. XXIV; Junker 1940, Taf. 53 Figure 13: Helwan, offering list of Wabkhenemu (after Köhler - Jones 2009, 148–149, with kind permission by C. E. Köhler) 54 Figure 14: Giza, Saqqara or Abusir, Offering list of Isi (AEIN 896b, (c) Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. Photo: Ole Haupt.) 55 Figure 15: Giza, Offering list on the sarcophagus of Prince Minkhhaf (redrawing by Markéta Kobierská after Smith 1933, Pl. XXIV) 56 Figure 16: Giza, Tomb of Kaemankh, offering list of Kaemankh (after Junker 1940, Taf. IX) 56 Figure 17: Inscribed Old Kingdom tools (except of mirrors) 57 Figure 18: Selection of Old Kingdom full-size adze blades. Contexts and sources: X1 - UC16330, Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UCL, X5 - EA66207, courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum, G23 - MFA 11.785, drawings by Martin 58 Figure 19: Selection of Old Kingdom full-size axe blades. Contexts and sources: AR1 - after Valloggia (2011, Fig. 164), G23 - MFA 11.784; NI1 - after Rowe (1936, 283–289) , drawings by Markéta Kobierská, Martin Odler; G23 - MFA 11.784, G12 -after Kromer ( 59 Figure 20: Selection of Old Kingdom full-size chisel blades. Contexts and sources: G2 and G3 - after Reisner and Smith (1955, Figs. 36-37); X2 -after Rowe (1938, Pl. LIX, drawing by Markéta Kobierská); G26 - MFA 11.841, X3 - EA66208, X4 - EA66209, both ar 60 Figure 21: Old Kingdom sites with iconographic sources concerning tools (Martin Odler in software qGIS, map: Natural Earth). 61 Figure 22: Saqqara, craft scenes in the tomb of Ty, sculptors and carpenters (icon12, 56; after Steindorff 1913, Taf. 133) 61 Figure 23: Old Kingdom iconographic sources with tools (1) 62 Figure 24: Giza, Tomb of Iymery (G 6020), first chamber, south wall, craft scenes (icon15; after Weeks 1994, Fig. 30, © MFA) 72 Figure 25: Deir el-Gebrawi, wooden haft of a model adze blade (after Kanawati 2013, Pl. 81: DGS06: 5, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 74 Figure 26: Deir el-Gebrawi, Tomb of Djau-Shemai and Djau, chapel, north wall, east section (icon25, 50, 63; after Kanawati 2013, Pl. 75, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 75 Figure 27: Old Kingdom archaeological contexts with copper tools, according to the sites (1) 78 Figure 28: Bubastis, Context Ba4 – Tomb 161 (after el-Sawi 1979, Figs . 148–149, redrawn by Markéta Kobierská, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 83 Figure 29: Abu Rawash, selected Old Kingdom contexts. Sources: AR1 - after Valloggia (2011, Fig. 163–164); AR5 - after Bisson de la Roque (1925,Pl. XXVI: 446a–b); ; AR6 - after Bisson de la Roque (1925, pl. XXVI: 453ab, 455, 454ab); AR7 - after Bisson de 84 Figure 31: Abusir, Context A50, Tomb AS 65 of Neferherptah, Shaft 1, perhaps of his relative (wife?), mirror (drawing by Martin Odler, Lucie Vařeková, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 86 Figure 32: Abusir, Context A37, Tomb AS 27: Tomb Lake of Abusir 5, Shaft 2, model tool kit deposited on a travertine offering table (photo by Květa Smoláriková, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 86 Figure 33: Abusir, Context A49, Tomb AS 22, burial chamber of Inti Pepyankh; copper model tools (find No. 140/JJ/2000) together with a ceramic vessel and limestone model vessels (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czec 87 Figure 34: Giza, Old Kingdom contexts in the database (1) 88 Figure 35: Giza, selected Dynasty 4 contexts with model tool kits. Contexts and sources: G5 – after Reisner (1942, Fig. 218); G9 – after Reisner (1942, Fig. 321); G10 – after Reisner (1942, Fig. 323); G20 – MFA 27.2037, G34 - MFA 36-12-31, 36-12-32, 36-12 92 Figure 36: Giza, Context G33, model tool types from the tomb of Khnumbaf (G 8260) (after Hassan 1953, 9, no scale) 93 Figure 37: Giza, Contexts G11 - G19, tools and tool fragments from the settlement debris, datable to the reigns of Khufu and Khafre (after Kromer 1978, Taf. 32) 93 Figure 38: Giza, finds from the Menkaure valley temple, MFA Boston. Contexts and accession numbers: G23 – 11.784, 11.785; G25 – 11.842; G26 – 11.841; G27 – 11.845; G30 – 11.843. © MFA. Drawings by Martin Odler, Valéria Uramová 94 Figure 39: Giza, Dynasty 5 model tools deposited in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Contexts and numbers: G42 – 24.2989, 24.2990; G47 – 15-12-52; G48 – 27-2-462; G49 – 33-1-41, 33.1046 - 33.1048, 33.1055; G50 – 15-11-42; G52 – 25-12-120, 25.2915; G55 – 2 95 Figure 40: Giza - Dynasty 5 full-size and model tools, contexts in other museums. Contexts and sources: G46 – after Reisner (1942, Fig. 304a); G53 – after Hassan (1941, Fig. 217); G68 – after Reisner (1942, Fig. 310); G69 – after Hassan (1941, Fig. 208). 96 Figure 41: Giza - Dynasty 5 and 6 provenanced contexts from the Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien. G51 - Context II; G67 - Context XVI; G107 - inventory numbers on drawing; G112 - Context I. Drawings by Martin Odler, Valéria Uramová, layout by Markéta Kobiers 97 Figure 42: “Giza “ - late Dynasty 5 and early Dynasty 6 contexts. Contexts and sources: G63 – after Hassan (1941, Fig. 82); G92 – after Hassan (1941, Fig. 118). 98 Figure 43: Giza - Dynasty 6 contexts in the MFA Boston. Contexts and numbers: G76 – 25.2688; G77 – 25.2610; G93 – 25.1783; G94 – 25.1634; G100 – 12-11-52; G120 – 30-12-5, © MFA. Drawings by Martin Odler, Valéria Uramová, layout by Markéta Kobierská 99 Figure 44: Giza, Context G97. Tools and model tools from the tomb of Ptahshepses Impy, G 2381, Shaft A. © MFA. Drawings by Martin Odler, Valéria Uramová, layout by Markéta Kobierská 100 Figure 45: Giza, Context G98. Model tools from Tomb G 2381, Shaft Z, © MFA. Drawings by Martin Odler, Valéria Uramová, layout by Markéta Kobierská 100 Figure 46: Giza - selected Old Kingdom mirrors and model mirrors. Contexts and sources: G99 – after Simpson (1980, 14, Pl. XXXIIc, redrawn by Markéta Kobierská); G115 – MFA, 37.1235; G126 – KHM Wien, Context V. Drawings by Martin Odler, Valéria Uramová, M 101 Figure 47: Giza, unprovenanced Old Kingdom material from the excavations by Hermann Junker, now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien. Contexts G123 - G131. Drawings by Martin Odler, Valéria Uramová, Markéta Kobierská, layout by Markéta Kobierská 102 Figure 48: Kafr Ammar, Old Kingdom mirrors. Sources: KA1 – after Petrie and Mackay (1915, Pl. XIV), KA2 – after Petrie and Mackay (1915, Pl. XIV) 103 Figure 49: Saqqara, Context S4, model tool kit from the tomb of Kaemsenu (after Firth - Gunn 1926, Fig. 38, no scale, © IFAO) 103 Figure 50: Saqqara - model tool kits from the Tombs of Kagemni (S6) and Neferseshemra- Shesi (S9). Source: S6 – after Firth and Gunn (1926, Fig. 17); S9 – after Firth and Gunn (1926, Fig. 14), © IFAO. 104 Figure 51: Saqqara - model tool blades from Context S24 (after Jéquier 1925, Fig. 24, no scale, © IFAO) 104 Figure 52: Saqqara - mirror from Context S26 (after Jéquier 1925, Fig. 63, no scale, © IFAO) 104 Figure 53: Saqqara - Context S31, most probably from the First Intermediate period or Middle Kingdom (after Jéquier 1940, Fig. 47, © IFAO) 105 Figure 54: Abydos - selected contexts with copper model tool kits. Ay1 – the British Museum, axe blades after Davies (1987, Pl. 2: 12); Ay10 – the British Museum; Ay11 – the British Museum, (c) Trustees of the British Museum. Drawings by Martin Odler, Val 106 Figure 55: Matmar, Old Kingdom copper alloy finds. Contexts and sources: Mt1 – after Brunton (1948, Pl. XXXV: 5); Mt2 – after Brunton (1948, Pl. XXXVII: 3208-10)Mt3 – after Brunton (1948, Pl. XXXV: 6); Mt4 – after Brunton (1948, Pl. XXXV: 8); Mt5 – after 107 Figure 56: Mostagedda, Old Kingdom copper alloy finds. Contexts and sources, new drawings by Martin Odler, Valéria Uramová: Ms1 – British Museum, EA63113; Ms2 – British Museum, EA62529, both courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum; Ms3 – Ashmolean 108 Figure 58: Dara, Context D1, late Old Kingdom copper alloy finds: model axe blade with haft and model chisel (after Weill 1958, Pl. XL, f, g, © IFAO) 110 Figure 59: Dendera, selected Old Kingdom copper alloy finds. Context and sources: Dd2 – after Petrie (1898, 7, Pl. XX); Dd3 – after Petrie (1898, Pl. XX); Dd4 – after Petrie (1898, Pl. XX); Dd5 – Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, AN1896-1908 E.1742, drawing by Ma 110 Figure 60: Diospolis Parva (Hu), selected Old Kingdom copper alloy finds. Contexts and numbers: DP2 – after Petrie (1901, Pl. XXXI: D14); DP3 – after Petrie (1901, Pl. XXXI: N 19). 111 Figure 61: Edfu, selected Old Kingdom copper alloy finds. Contexts and sources: Louvre - Ed1 – E 25975; Ed4 – E 25973, E 25978. National Museum, Warsaw: Ed2 – MN 141673; Ed8 – MN 140331; Ed10 – MN 141590. Drawings by Martin Odler, Valéria Uramová 112 Figure 62: El-Kab, Old Kingdom copper alloy finds. EK1 – after Hendrickx and Eyckerman (2009, Fig. 27, with kind permission by S. Hendrickx); EK2 – after Quibell (1898, Pl. XVIII: 56–65); EK3 – after Lilyquist (1979, Fig. 10, with kind permission by C. Li 113 Figure 63: El-Kab, mirror from Context EK4 (no scale, after Limme 2008, Fig. 23, with kind permission by D. Huyge). 114 Figure 64: Mahasna, Old Kingdom copper alloy finds. Contexts and sources: Ashmolean Museum, Oxford: Mh1 – AN.1896-1908 E.1860; Mh6 – AN.1896-1908 E.1783; Petrie Museum, UCL: Mh3 – UC 40535, Courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UCL; Mh2 – 114 Figure 65: Zawiyet el-Mayitin, Old Kingdom copper alloy finds. Drawings by Martin Odler, Valéria Uramová. Louvre: ZM1 - E11457; ZM2 - E11470; ZM3 - E11464. 115 Figure 67: Balat, selected Old Kingdom copper alloy mirrors, layout by Markéta Kobierská. Contexts and sources: B4 – after Valloggia (1998, Pl. LXXVI, B); B10 – after Castel, Pantalacci and Cherpion (2001, Fig. 123–124); B11 – after Castel, Pantalacci and 117 Figure 68: Selected Old Kingdom copper alloy finds from Nubia. Contexts and sources: Ad1 – after Williams (1989, Fig. 70c); Ad2 – after Williams (1989,Fig. 71: b, j), both figures published with kind permission by the Oriental Institute, University of Chi 118 Figure 69: Tool counts in the iconographic sources (1) 121 Figure 70: Saqqara, Tomb of Mereruka, north wall, Room A3, east wall, craft scenes (icon22, 80, after Kanawati et al. 2010, Pl. 74, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 125 Figure 71: Abusir, Tomb of Ptahshepses, Room 4, east wall, register 1, sculptors (icon54; after Verner 1986, Pls. 27–28, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 125 Figure 72: Sheikh Said, Tomb of Serefkai, metalworking scene with products of the workshop (icon7, 77, after Davies 1901, Pl. 4) 126 Figure 73: Deshasheh, Tomb of Inti, chapel, east wall, south of entrance, craft scenes (icon32, 67, 79, after Kanawati - McFarlane 1993, Pl. 29, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 126 Figure 74: Finds of chisels according to the sites and periods 126 Figure 75: Types and variants of chisels used in Shaft 113 at Saqqara (after Welc 2010, Fig. 27, with kind permission by F. Welc) 127 Figure 76: Abusir, Tomb AS 60, chisel marks in the burial chamber (photo by Lucie Jirásková, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 128 Figure 77: Abusir, Tomb AS 60, chisel marks in the burial chamber (photo by Lucie Jirásková, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 128 Figure 78: Abusir, Tomb AC 15: burial chamber of Khekeretnebty, chisel cut marks on a sarcophagus (photo by Milan Zemina, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 129 Figure 79: Abusir, interior of the canopic jar 15_3/AS67/2012 with chisel traces. The tool might have been used either to cut out the drilling core remaining after the use of a copper tube drill or to gouge out the stoneto shape the interior of the jar (p 129 Figure 80: Abusir, a detail of the wall of a canopic jar (find No. 24/AS37/2007), which was once deposited in the burial chamber of Neferinpu’s wife or mother situated at Abusir South. In this case, a chisel was used instead of the figure-of-eight borer t 130 Figure 81: Abusir, another canopic jar from the set of Neferinpu’s wife or mother (find No. 25/AS37/2007) showing that bases of all the jars belonging to this set were dressed using a copper chisel (photo L. Jirásková, © Faculty of Arts, Charles Universit 130 Figure 82: A bowl (find No. 19_25/AS37/2007) belonging to the assemblage of model stone vessels collected in the burial chamber of Neferinpu (AS 37) at Abusir. All of the bowls of this set bear traces of the use of copper chisels to shape the depressions. 131 Figure 83: Abusir, Tomb of Ptahshepses, fine traces of chisels and polishing agents on a relief fragment (photo by Milan Zemina, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 131 Figure 84: Reconstruction of the semiotic triangle for mnx chisel. Relief and tool name after Wild (1953, Pl. CXXVIII © IFAO). Drawing by Martin Odler. 132 Figure 85: Meidum, Tomb of Rahotep. Shipbuilding scene (icon40; after Petrie 1892, Pl. XI, register 1). 133 Figure 86: Chisels in Old Kingdom iconographic sources (1) 134 Figure 87: Saqqara, Tomb of Ankhmahor-Sesi, Room II, south wall, craft scenes (icon60, 69, 150; after Kanawati - Hassan 1997, Pl. 40, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 137 Figure 88: Hawawish, Tomb of Kaihep/Tjeti-Iker, chapel, south wall, west of entrance, craft scenes (icon26, 64; after Kanawati 1980, Fig. 9, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 137 Figure 89: Giza, Tomb of Senedjembi Inti (G 2370), Room II, north wall, craft scenes (icon14, 58, 149, after Brovarski 2001, Fig. 45, © MFA, with kind permission by E. Brovarski) 138 Figure 90: Old Kingdom chisels, Types A–C, no scale. Drawing by Martin Odler, sources: A1 – after Castel, Pantalacci and Cherpion (2001, Fig. 123–124); A2 – after Jéquier (1929, Fig. 24); A4 – after Reisner (1942, Fig. 304a); A3, A5, A6, A7 – after Firth 139 Figure 91: Old Kingdom chisels, Types D–G, no scale. Drawing by Martin Odler, sources: D1 – after Castel, Pantalacci and Cherpion (2001, Fig. 123–124); D2 – ÄMUL 2116; E2 – after Kaplony (1965, Taf. VII); D3 – after Hassan (1941, Fig. 118); D4 – after Fir 139 Figure 92: Terminology used for the description of tools, selected terms. Drawing by Martin Odler, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology 140 Figure 93: Terminology used for the description of chisels. Drawing by Martin Odler, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology. 140 Figure 94: Histogram of the length of complete Old Kingdom model chisels 141 Figure 95: Histogram of the length of complete Old Kingdom model chisels of A1 variant (produced in Systat software) 141 Figure 96: Saqqara, Context S8, model tool kit from the tomb of Mereruka (numbers under the tools denote the preserved specimens of the types, after Firth - Gunn 1926, Fig. 22, © IFAO) 142 Figure 97: Histogram of the length of complete Old Kingdom model chisels of A5 variant (produced in Systat software) 142 Figure 98: Context A40, model chisel blade with traces of a wooden handle and a textile wrapping (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 143 Figure 99: Histogram of the length of complete Old Kingdom model chisels of D1 variant (produced in Systat software) 144 Figure 100: Saqqara, chisels of Variant D1 from Context S11 and a fragment of an adze blade (after Kanawati et al. 2006, Pl. 75: cdef, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 145 Figure 101: Context A45 – two chisels, an adze and a needle (drawing by Martin Odler, Lucie Vařeková, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 145 Figure 102: Dynasty 4 chisels found at Giza (no scale; after Junker 1929, Abb. 17) 146 Figure 103: Variants of chisels according to the sites 147 Figure 104: Variants of chisels according to the periods 148 Figure 105: Abusir, Context A49, set of five cross-cut chisels of Variant D1 bound by a thread (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 148 Figure 106: Abusir, Context A49, copper model tools corroded together (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 148 Figure 107: Abusir, Context A40, model chisel blades with traces of wooden handles (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 149 Figure 108: Abusir, Context A37, remains of wooden handles on model chisels (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 149 Figure 109: Abusir, Context A40, detail of the remains of a wooden handle on a chisel blade (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 149 Figure 110: Finds of adzes according to the sites and periods 150 Figure 111: Reconstruction of the semiotic triangle for an.t adze. Full-size blade after Petrie (1892, Pl. XXIX: 11), relief after Wild (1966, Pl. CLXXIII, © IFAO), drawing by Martin Odler 152 Figure 112: Reconstruction of the semiotic triangle for msx.tyw adze. Drawing by Martin Odler. Relief and tool name after Hassan (1938, Pl. XCVI), drawing by Martin Odler 152 Figure 113: Old Kingdom terms for adzes (after Odler 2015, Fig. 4) 153 Figure 114: Abusir, Tomb of Ptahshepses, hieroglyph of an adze with a lashing, butcher knife (most probably stone) (photo by Milan Zemina, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 154 Figure 115: Adzes in the Old Kingdom iconographic sources (1) 156 Figure 116: Abusir, Tomb of Ptahshepses, sculptor with an adze at work (icon54; photo by Milan Zemina, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 159 Figure 117: Meidum, Tomb of Atet, south wall of the niche, shipbuilding (icon41; after Petrie 1892, Pl. XXV) 159 Figure 118: Giza, Tomb of Wepemnefret (G 8882), chapel, eastern wall (icon13, 57; after Hassan 1936, Fig. 219) 160 Figure 119: Saqqara, a loose block found at the causeway of the pyramid of Wenis (icon78, after Hassan 1938, Pl. XCVI) 160 Figure 120: Saqqara, Tomb of Mereruka, north wall, west of statue niche, shipbuilding (icon47, after Kanawati et al. 2011, Pl. 74, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 160 Figure 121: Giza, Tomb of Kaemankh, burial chamber, west wall, lumberjacks and metalworker (icon33, after Junker 1940, Taf. X) 161 Figure 122: Abusir, Causeway of Sahure, block SC/south/2003/07 (icon83; after el-Awady 2009, Pl. 5, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 161 Figure 123: Saqqara, Tomb of Ihy (Idut), Room VIII, west wall, a carpenter with an adze (icon21; after Kanawati - Abder-Raziq 2003, Pl. 61, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 161 Figure 124: Abusir, Tomb of Ptahshepses, loose block, an adze at rest (icon30; after Vachala 2004, Fragment F 138, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 162 Figure 125: Histogram of the length of complete Old Kingdom adze blades 163 Figure 126: Types and variants of Old Kingdom adze blades, no scale. Sources: C3 – after Hassan (1941, Fig. 217); C4 – MFA, 27-2-462i; D1 – after Bárta et al. (2009, Fig. 6.3.111); D2, D6, D7, D8 – after Firth and Gunn (1926, Figs. 6, 14, 17); D4 – after 163 Figure 127: Abusir, model adze blades of Variant D1 from Context A47 (drawing by Lucie Vařeková, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 164 Figure 128: Variants of adzes according to the sites 165 Figure 129: Variants of adzes according to the periods 165 Figure 130: Abusir, Context A40, thread on a neck of a model adze blade (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 166 Figure 131: Abusir, Context A40, model chisel blades with traces of wooden handles and textile wrapping on a model adze blade (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 166 Figure 132: Abusir, Context A41, negative traces of a thread on a model adze blade (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 167 Figure 133: Abusir, Context A40, model adze blades with traces of a thread on the neck (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 167 Figure 134: Abusir, Context A49, set of adze blades of Variant D2 bound by a thread (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 167 Figure 135: Semiotic triangle for Old Kingdom axe. Drawing by Martin Odler. Relief and tool name after Wild (1953, Pl. CXXIX), full-size axe blade after Valloggia (2011, Fig. 164, redrawn by Markéta Kobierská) 169 Figure 136: Axes in the Old Kingdom iconographic sources (1) 170 Figure 137: Saqqara, Tomb of Niankhnum and Khnumhotep, Door Room, north wall, shipbuilding scene and lumberjacks (icon35, 43; after Moussa - Altenmüller 1977, Abb. 8, with kind permission by H. Altenmüller) 172 Figure 138: Zawiyet el-Mayitin, Tomb of Niankhpepy-Khnumhotep-heti, fragment of relief, lumberjacks at work (icon38, after Varille 1938, Pl. XVI, © IFAO) 172 Figure 139: Meir, Tomb of Pepyankh the Black, Room 1, north wall, craft scenes (icon24, 62; after Kanawati and Evans 2014, Pl. 73; © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 173 Figure 140: Hammamiya, Tomb of Kakhenet and Khentkaus, chapel, east wall, section C, shipbuilding and carpentry (icon18, after El-Khouli and Kanawati 1991, Pl. 69, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 174 Figure 141: Histograms of the heigth of complete Old Kingdom model axe blades 174 Figure 142: Finds of axes according to the sites and periods 175 Figure 143: Types and variants of Old Kingdom axe blades, no scale. Drawing by Martin Odler, sources: A1, A2, A3, A7 – after Firth and Gunn (1926, Fig. 14); A4 – after Hassan (1953, 9); A5 - after Bárta et al. (2009, Fig. 6.3.111); A6 – after Edel, Seyfri 176 Figure 144: Saqqara, model tool kit from Context S10, after Firth and Gunn (1926, Fig. 6, © IFAO) 176 Figure 145: Abusir, model tool kit from Context A46 (drawing by Martin Odler, Lucie Vařeková, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 177 Figure 146: Abusir, Context A44, model tool kit with a model bowl (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 178 Figure 147: Abusir, model tool kit from Context A44 (drawing by Martin Odler, Lucie Vařeková, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 179 Figure 148: Deshasha, Tomb of Inti, chapel, east wall, north of the entrance, siege of a town (icon147, after Kanawati - McFarlane 1993, Pl. 26, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 180 Figure 149: Saqqara, mortuary temple of Pepy II, a halberd-shaped blade (after Jéquier 1938, Pl. 45, © IFAO) 180 Figure 150: Variants of axes according to the sites 181 Figure 151: Variants of axes according to the periods 181 Figure 152: Abusir, Context A37, model axe blades with traces of wooden hafts (photo by Kamil Voděra, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 182 Figure 153: Abusir, model tool kit from Context A37 (drawing by Květa Smoláriková, Lucie Vařeková, © Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology) 183 Figure 154: Abusir, Context A40, textile wrapping on a model axe blade (photo by Martin Frouz) 184 Figure 155: Finds of saws according to the sites and periods 185 Figure 156: Giza, Tomb of Meresankh III (G 7530-7540) (icon1, 156; after Dunham and Simpson 1974, Fig. 5, © MFA) 186 Figure 157: Semiotic triangle for Old Kingdom saw. Drawing by Martin Odler. Relief after Wild (1966, Pl. CLXXIV); Full-size saw blade after Petrie (1892, Pl. XXIX: 12); model saw blade after Firth – Gunn (1926, Fig. 11); tool name after Junker (1940, Taf. 186 Figure 158: Saws in Old Kingdom iconographic sources (1) 187 Figure 159: Saqqara, Tomb of Nefer and Kahai, east wall, alcove, craft scenes (icon9, 34; after Lashien 2013, Pl. 83, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 188 Figure 160: Histograms of the length of Old Kingdom saw blades. 188 Figure 161: “Types and variants of Old Kingdom saw blades, no scale. Sources: A1 – after James (1953, Fig. 4); A2 – after Hassan (1941, Fig. 217); A3 - MFA, 14.1723; B1 – after Quibell (1898, Pl. XVIII: 59); B2 – after Reisner (1942, Fig. 310); B3 - ÄMUL 189 Figure 162: Variants of saws according to the sites 190 Figure 163: Variants of saws according to the periods 191 Figure 164: Old Kingdom full-size saws. Contexts and sources: M3 – Petrie (1892, Pl. XXIX: 12); G2, G3 – after Reisner and Smith (1955, Figs. 36-37) 192 Figure 165: Saqqara, Context S7, model tool kit (after Firth and Gunn 1926, Fig. 11, © IFAO) 192 Figure 166: Abusir, Context A38, model saw blades with traces of wooden handles (photo by Kamil Voděra) 192 Figure 167: Drills in the Old Kingdom iconographic sources 193 Figure 168: Deir el-Gebrawi, Tomb of Ibi, north wall, east of offering recess, craft scenes (icon23, 48, 61, 151, 157; after Kanawati 2007, Pl. 72, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 193 Figure 169: Meir, Tomb of Pepyankh the Black, Room 1, west wall, drilling of stone vessels (icon169, after Kanawati - Evans 2014, Pl. 72, © ACE. with kind permission by N. Kanawati) 194 Figure 170: Saqqara, Tomb of Ty, bow-drill in use (icon146, after Wild 1966, Pl. CLXXIV, detail, © IFAO) 195 Figure 171: Finds of razors according to the sites and periods 196 Figure 172: Semiotic triangle for Old Kingdom razor. Drawing by Martin Odler, full-size razor after Reisner and Smith (1955, Fig. 45); model razor blade ÄMUL 2132; razors in an etui after Khouli and Kanawati (1991, Pl. 64, (c) ACE); tool name after Moussa 197 Figure 173: Razors in the Old Kingdom iconographic sources 198 Figure 174: Saqqara, Tomb of Niankhnum and Khnumhotep, Door Room, north wall, lower relief field, circumcision scene and market scene (icon71, 82; after Moussa - Altenmüller 1977, Abb. 10,