Nutritional Health: Strategies for Disease Prevention (Nutrition and Health)

This fourth edition brings together a diverse range of experts in nutrition-related areas to discuss recent thinking and discoveries in nutrition, especially in relation to topics that have the greatest capacity to improve human health and nutritional implementation. An overview of nutrition science in the third decade of the twenty-first century reveals that much water has flown under the bridge of the advancing river that is nutrition research and practice. With these large accumulations of developments in the field of nutrition, the need for a new edition of this book is obvious. Our vastly improved nutrition knowledge gives us the capability of preventing a sizable fraction of the chronic diseases that afflict the people of our world, but only if these discoveries can be translated into effective action at the population level. Nutritional Health endeavours to address the needs of those who would most benefit from up-to-date information on key areas in the field of nutrition. The book starts with a discussion of the nature of nutritional research then moves into an overview of the most important aspects of the complex interactions between diet, its nutrient components, and their impacts on disease states, and on those health conditions that increase the risk of chronic diseases. Parts three and four discuss diet and include new chapters on the Mediterranean diet, the DASH diet, the flexitarian diet, and the low-carbohydrate diet. The final two parts of the book discuss emerging trends in nutrition science, such as gut microbiome and sustainable diet, and areas of controversy in nutrition, such as the influence of the food industry and dietary supplements. Up to date and comprehensive , Nutritional Health: Strategies for Disease Prevention, Fourth Edition offers physicians, dietitians, and nutritionists a practical, data-driven, integrated resource to help evaluate the critical role of nutrition. Foreword Preface Contents Editors and Contributors About the Series Editors About the Volume Editors Contributors Part I: Understanding Nutrition 1: Methods in Nutrition Research Introduction Fundamental Principles of Research Design Errors, Bias, and Within-Person Variation in Dietary Assessment Epidemiological Studies Cohort Studies Case-Control Studies Cross-Sectional Studies Population Studies Historical Studies Randomized Controlled Trials Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Experiments Using Animals Mechanistic Research Comparative Strengths and Weaknesses of Randomized Controlled Trials: Drugs vs. Foods Comparative Strengths and Weaknesses of Randomized Controlled Trials vs Cohort Studies Evaluating the Evidence The Problems of Conflict of Interest and of Inadequate Research Funding Ethical Approval Summary References 2: Challenges in Research in Nutritional Epidemiology How to Find Out What People Eat The Nature of Dietary Information Methods of Dietary Assessment Ability to Represent Usual Diet Who Synthesizes Dietary Information? Can Accurate Dietary Information Be Obtained? What Element of Diet Should Be Studied? Summary References 3: The Nutrition Transition and the Double Burden of Malnutrition Introduction The Nutrition Transition Drivers and Consequences of the Nutrition Transition Obesity and Chronic Disease The Double Burden of Malnutrition and Its Consequences Economic Development, Urbanization, and Globalization Predominance of Ultra-Processed Foods Loss of Traditional food Practices Nutrition Transition in the Rural Sector Subsistence Farming During the Nutrition Transition Nutritional Transition and Impact on Diet Quality Indigenous Health and the Nutrition Transition Options for Improving the Quality of Nutrition for Indigenous People Integrated Responses to the Nutrition Transition Summary References Part II: Nutritional Control and Prevention of Chronic Diseases 4: Prenatal and Childhood Stressors Promote Chronic Disease in Later Life Introduction Impact of Growth in Fetal Life and Childhood on Risk for Chronic Disease in Later Life Possible Importance of Confounding Variables Adverse Childhood Experiences Biological Basis Fetal Life and Responses to Stressors Childhood Growth and Coronary Heart Disease Type 2 Diabetes and Hypertension Compensatory Growth Pathways to Disease Strength of Effects Maternal Influences on Fetal Nutrition The Fetal Growth Trajectory Intergenerational Effects Epigenetic Influences Maternal Diet and Body Composition Placental Transfer Research Challenges Environmental Influences Pathogenesis Disease Prevention Basic and Preclinical Research Conclusions References 5: Nutritional Principles in the Treatment of Diabetes Introduction Medical Nutrition Therapy (MNT) for Diabetes Definition of MNT Goals of MNT Diabetes Prevention Effectiveness of MNT in the Management of Diabetes MNT and Glycemic Control Cardiovascular Risk Factor Mitigation Medication Use Quality of Life Medical and Surgical Weight Loss Medical Weight Management and Impact on Type 2 Diabetes Surgical Weight Management and Impact on Type 2 Diabetes Recommendations for MNT Referrals and Encounters Who Should Be Referred? Frequency of Encounters Assessment During Encounters and Follow-Up MNT Intervention Macronutrients Carbohydrate Protein Dietary Fat Micronutrients Other Nutritional Considerations Non-nutritive Sweeteners Fiber Alcohol Diabetes-Related Comorbidities Diabetic Kidney Disease Gastroparesis Cardiovascular Disease Summary and Conclusions References 6: Obesity: A Disease of Overnutrition Introduction How Do We Define and Measure Obesity? Who Becomes Obese? What Causes Obesity? Why Is Obesity Called a Chronic Relapsing Disease Process? What Can We Do to Prevent Obesity? How Effective Are Treatments for Obesity? Summary References 7: Effects of Nutrients on the Control of Blood Lipids Introduction Fatty Acids and Blood Lipids/Lipoproteins Replacement of SFA Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids n-6 Fatty Acids n-3 Fatty Acids Monounsaturated Fatty Acids Other Substances in Food Dietary Cholesterol Soluble Fiber Plant Sterols/Stanols Added Sugars Alcohol Summary References 8: Coronary Heart Disease: Nutritional Interventions for Prevention and Therapy Introduction Dietary Fat and Coronary Heart Disease Fat Intake Saturated Fat and Dietary Cholesterol Trans Fats n-6 Polyunsaturated Fats and Monounsaturated Fats Fish and n-3 Polyunsaturated Fats Meat and Coronary Heart Disease Carbohydrates and Coronary Heart Disease Carbohydrate Intake Sugar Whole Grains Refined Grains Fruit, Vegetables, and Coronary Heart Disease Salt and Cardiovascular Disease Alcohol and Cardiovascular Disease Should We Recommend Dietary Supplements? Whole Diet Approaches and Reduction in Risk of Coronary Heart Disease The Importance of Obesity Physical Activity Conclusion References 9: Nutritional Influences on Blood Pressure Introduction Blood Pressure and the Blood Glucose Relationship Body Weight Dietary Components and Their Effects on Blood Pressure Macronutrients Protein Fat Carbohydrates Micronutrients Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Other Food Components Caffeine Alcohol Grapes, Wine, and Resveratrol Tea Artichokes Beetroot Juice Licorice Dietary Supplements Summary/Conclusion References 10: Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Cancer Prevention Introduction Body Weight Physical Activity Sedentary Behavior Dietary Patterns Fruits and Vegetables Dietary Fiber Meat Dairy Dietary Supplements Alcohol Conclusions References 11: Nutrition and Eating Disorders Introduction Eating Disorder Diagnostic Criteria Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa Binge Eating Disorder Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder Rumination Disorder Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorders Night Eating Syndrome Purging Disorder Atypical Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa (of Low Frequency or Limited Duration) Binge Eating Disorder (of Low Frequency or Limited Duration) Unspecified Feeding or Eating Disorder Prevalence of Eating Disorders Behavioral Treatment for Eating Disorders Psychotherapy and Nutrition Therapy for Anorexia Nervosa Anorexia Nervosa Inpatient Treatment Anorexia Nervosa Outpatient Treatment in Adolescents Anorexia Nervosa Outpatient Treatment in Adults Prognosis for Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa Prognosis for Bulimia Nervosa Binge Eating Disorder Prognosis in Binge Eating Disorder Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder Rumination Disorder Purging Disorder Night Eating Syndrome Pharmacological Treatment for Eating Disorders Effects of COVID-19 on Eating Disorders Prevention Conclusions References Part III: Nutritional Importance of the Parts of the Diet 12: Alcohol Consumption and Health Introduction A Look at Alcoholic Beverages Possible Beneficial Health Effects Associated with Alcohol Consumption Alcohol and Coronary Heart Disease Alcohol and Diverse Health Problems Harmful Effects of Alcohol Accidents, Violence, and Suicide Chronic Alcohol Abuse Alcohol and Pregnancy Alcohol and Cancer Alcohol and Body Weight Effect of Alcohol on Total Mortality Drinking Pattern Phytochemicals in Alcoholic Beverages Conclusions References 13: Nonalcoholic Beverages: Clinical Recommendations, Concerns, and Opportunities Introduction Water Tea Coffee Milk Fruit and Vegetable Juices Fruit Juices Health Benefits of Citrus Juice Vegetable Juices Recommendations for Consumption of Fruit and Vegetable Juices Sports Beverages Sugar-Sweetened Beverages (Soft Drinks) Weight Loss and Meal-Replacement Beverages Health Effects of Energy Drinks Future Trends References 14: Health Benefits of Dietary Phytochemicals in Whole Foods Introduction Phytochemicals Phenolics Flavonoids Phenolic Acids Carotenoids Health Benefits of Phytochemicals Role of Phytochemicals in the Prevention of Cancer Role of Phytochemicals in the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease Health Benefits of Phytochemicals in Whole Foods: Food Synergy Summary References 15: Functional Foods: Implications for Consumers and Clinicians What Is a Functional Food? Bioactive Compounds in Functional Foods and Their Chemistry Examples of Disease Conditions Affected by Functional Foods Cardiovascular Disease Type 2 Diabetes Antioxidants Antiviral Functions Where Do Consumers Learn About Functional Foods? Conclusion References Part IV: Nutrition, Healthy Diets, and Public Health 16: The Mediterranean Diet Introduction Origins and Definition Nutritional Model Features of the Mediterranean Diet The Mediterranean Diet Pyramid Effects on Health How to Evaluate Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) Cancer Type 2 Diabetes (T2DM) Overweight and Obesity Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Osteoporosis Microbiota Aging Sustainability The Mediterranean Diet in Countries Beyond the Mediterranean Area Feasibility Issues Conclusion References 17: The DASH Dietary Pattern Introduction Design of the Dash Dietary Pattern Effect of DASH Diet on Blood Pressure and Hypertension Implementation of DASH Effect of DASH on the Risk of Other Chronic Diseases and Conditions DASH and Cardiovascular Diseases DASH and Kidney Diseases DASH and Cancer DASH, Cognitive Function, and Mental Health Practical Tips Conclusion References 18: The Vegetarian/Flexitarian Diet Introduction Classifications and Overview Flexitarian Diet Pescatarian Diet Lacto-Ovo-Vegetarian Diet Vegan Diet Other Vegetarian Diets Health Benefits of Vegetarian Diets Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) Obesity Cancer Type 2 Diabetes Bone Health Environmental Impact Health Benefits of Flexitarian Diets Nutrients in Vegetarian Diets Protein Carbohydrates and Fiber Fat Saturated Fatty Acids Omega-3 Fatty Acids Calcium Vitamin D Iron Zinc Vitamin B12 Summary References 19: Low-Carbohydrate Nutrition and Disease Prevention Introduction Randomized Clinical Trials of Diet and Disease Prevention Background and History of Low-Carbohydrate Eating Patterns Observational Studies of Low-Carbohydrate Diet and Disease Prevention Cardiovascular Disease and Mortality Type 2 Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome Cancer Around the World Intermediate Outcomes in Clinical Trials Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors Summary and Conclusion References 20: Trends in Dietary Recommendations: Nutrient Intakes, Dietary Guidelines, and Food Guides Introduction The Dietary Reference Intakes Estimated Average Requirement Recommended Dietary Allowance Adequate Intake Tolerable Upper Level Intake Estimated Energy Requirement Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges Limitations of the DRI General Guidelines for Diet Assessment of Individuals How the DRI Is Used Recommendations for Nutrient Intakes in Other Countries European Union The United Kingdom Dietary Guidelines Dietary Guidelines That Include Both Qualitative Advice and Quantitative Recommendations Dietary Guidelines for Americans American Heart Association Recommendations Canada’s Dietary Guidelines World Health Organization Recommendations Food-Based Dietary Guidelines Food Guides Food Guides in the United States Food Guides in Other Countries Food Guides: Comments Summary References 21: Food Labels: Sorting the Wheat from the Chaff The Nutrition Facts Label The Design of Nutrition Facts Label Why BOP Food Labels Can Cause Confusion Using the Nutrition Facts Label Front-of-Package Food Labels The Design of Front-of-Package Food Labels How Effective Are Front-of-Package Labels? Health Claims on Food Labels Using Labels to Make Misleading Implicit Health Claims Food Labels and the Environment Conclusion References 22: Health Promotion and Nutrition Policy by Governments Introduction Health Promotion Campaigns Campaigns in Communities Worksite Health Promotion Health Promotion in the Physician’s Office Internet-Based Health Promotion Health Promotion and the Individual Food Advertising Is the Population Adopting a Healthier Lifestyle? Why Are People Resistant to Education, Advice, and Encouragement? Government Policy The Case for Action Policies Examples of Action Policies Removal of Trans Fatty Acids from Foods Reducing the Salt Content of Processed Food Action Policies in Schools Taxes and Subsidies as Tools to Improve Population Diets Food Prices and Socioeconomic Status Strategic Nutrition Some Signs of Progress The Question of Cost-Effectiveness Barriers to the Implementation of Strategic Nutrition Final Comments References Part V: Emerging Trends 23: Food Synergy: A Paradigm Shift in Nutrition Science The Concept of Nutrient Deficiency Diseases Food Synergy: An Alternative Paradigm The Emergence of the Concept of Food Synergy The Mediterranean Diet The Alternate Healthy Eating Index The A Priori Diet Quality Score Western Dietary Pattern Meat and Health DASH Diet Food Synergy and Disease Food Synergy: A Research Perspective The Limitations of Epidemiology The Limitations of Mechanistic Research in Explaining the Effects of Food on Health Future Research Directions Top Down Approach Conclusion References 24: Genomics and Gene-Based Personalized Nutrition Introduction: Nutrigenetics and Nutrigenomics Gene–Diet Interactions Gene-Based Personalized Nutrition Applications and Testing Translating Genetic Test Results to Dietary Advice Gene-Based Personalized Nutrition: Evidence and Progress Challenges of Gene-Based Personalized Nutrition Limitations of Current Science and Research Barriers in Practice Integrating Scientific and Technological Advancements Conclusion References 25: Nutrition and the Gut Microbiome: Insights into New Dietary Strategies for Health Introduction Gut Microbiome The Ecosystem of the Gut Microbiota The General Biological Functions of the Gut Microbiota Nutrient Biosynthesis Microbial Metabolism in Host Nutrition Diet, Microbiome, and Immunity Gut Microbiota in Human Health and Disease Gastrointestinal Health Inflammatory Bowel Disease Colorectal Cancer Obesity Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Cardiovascular Disease Nutritional Regulation of the Gut Microbiome Carbohydrates: Dietary Fiber and Sugar Protein: Plant-Based Protein vs Animal-Based Protein Fats: Saturated Fats vs Unsaturated Fats Micronutrients: Vitamins and Minerals Vitamins Minerals Dietary Pattern: Western-Style Diet vs Mediterranean-Style Diet Dietary Supplements, Prebiotics and Probiotics Conclusion References 26: Food Insecurity, Nutrition, and the COVID-19 Pandemic Introduction Structural Context Impact of the Pandemic on Food Systems Food Systems in the USA International Food Systems Downstream Impact of the Pandemic on Food Insecurity and Nutrition Nutrition and COVID-19 Disease COVID-19 and Vitamin D Clinical and Policy Implications Conclusion Lessons Learned References 27: Towards Sustainable Diets and Food Systems Introduction Sustainability, Nutrition, and Health The Diet—Health—Environment Trilemma The Environmental Nutrition Model Challenges to Sustainable Food Systems Natural Resource Constraints Societal Demands on Food System Adverse Health and Nutritional Outcomes Environmental Degradation from Food Production Sustainability Metrics and Assessment Life Cycle Assessment Types of Environmental Impact in LCA Other Methodologies Sustainable Food Systems and Diets Approaches for Sustainable Food Systems Food Determinants of Sustainable and Healthy Diets Animal-Based vs. Plant-based Foods Processed vs. Whole Foods Imported vs. Seasonal Foods Food Waste vs. Efficiency Food Policy Options Conclusion References Part VI: Areas of Controversy 28: Technological Approaches to Improve Food Quality for Human Health Introduction Preharvest Technologies Postharvest Technologies Preservation Processes Fermentation Processes Fortification Production of “Free from” Foods Hypoallergenic and Lactose-Free Milk Gluten-Free Products Meat Mimetics Glyphosate-Free Foods Conclusion References 29: Optimizing Nutrition for Exercise and Sports Introduction General Energy and Macronutrient Guidelines for Athletes Macronutrients and Micronutrients for Athletes Carbohydrate Protein Fat Vitamins Nutritional Strategies Promote Hydration Promote Recovery Essential Amino Acids Tart Cherry Fish Oils Nutrient Timing Proposed Nutritional Ergogenic Aids Summary References 30: Influence of the Food Industry: The Food Environment and Nutrition Policy Introduction Swimming Upstream: The Ubiquity of Unhealthy Food and Beverages Industry Influence at the Point of Purchase: The Supermarket Paying to Play: Trade Promotion Fees Cultivating Close Relationships with Retailers Using Data to Advance Food Industry Interests Industry Influence on National Nutrition Policy Paying for Political Influence: Campaign Contributions, Lobbying Fees, and Sponsorships Building Relationships for Influence through the Revolving Door Sponsoring Research: More about Marketing than Science Turning the Tide on Industry Influence Federal Action State Action Local Action Conclusion References 31: Dietary Supplements and Health: One Part Science, Nine Parts Hype Introduction Common Supplements Vitamins and Minerals Antioxidants Probiotics Herbs Detoxification and Boosting the Immune System Glucosamine and Chondroitin Prevagen CoQ Weight-Loss Products A Repeating Story Potential Hazards from Supplements How Dietary Supplements are Marketed Health Food Stores, Drugstores, and Supermarkets Multilevel Marketing Advertising Regulations on the Marketing of Supplements United States Canada Advice for Consumers Conclusion References 32: A Plague of False and Misleading Information Introduction The Case of DR Oz Weight-Loss Treatments Blood Types and Health Detoxification Stem Cells Training Programs for Nutritionists The Problem of Food Companies Meddling in Scientific Research Conclusion References 33: Postscript: An Overview of Nutrition—Much Progress but Challenges Ahead Index