Novel Food Grade Enzymes : Applications in Food Processing and Preservation Industries

translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. v research work in the proposed area and the contributed chapters will also be highlighting some of the salient research work already published in the reputed journals by internationally recognized authors in the proposed area. The flowchart described in certain chapters will provide all the necessary information related to the production, optimization, and characterization of food grade enzymes in simpler manner. This book will not only cover the basic enzyme kinetics part but also provide information related to the efficient enzyme recovery and purification process. It also gives broad information on the factors affecting enzyme activity and stability as well as involvement of enzyme in the development of functional food combating chronic diseases and disorders.vi PrefaceAs per our survey, only few books are available on the role of enzymes in food processing although this is a prominent area of study and needs to be covered in detail. The earlier books primarily focused on the general enzyme properties and its application. However, no deep insight knowledge pertaining to the commodity-wise application of food grade enzymes has been previously illustrated. We have tried to cover all the aspects of food grade enzymes including its general properties, kinetics, wide application in all the food processing and packaging industries. Although numerous books on medical and therapy-based application of enzymes are available in the market, no books on wider perspective of food grade enzymes applications are available till now. The simpler language, clearly illustrated concepts, and broadly discussed case studies related to various food grade enzymes will enable the readers to strengthen their concept and knowledge. This book will be beneficial for the faculty members, undergraduate, postgraduate, and PhD students of Microbiology, Food Technology, Dairy Technology, Horticulture, Biotechnology, Biochemistry, and other allied discipline of Life Science. This book will also be beneficial to those authors who are indulged in the research activities related to the above-mentioned subject areas such as food science, enzyme and fermentation technology, bioprocess technology, and biochemical engineering. The involvement of foreign authors and editors will provide deeper insight about the subject knowledge and will improve the quality of book content making it readable and acceptable at global level. I hope the readers will enjoy reading this book and will develop interest in the area of enzyme technology. Preface Acknowledgments Contents About the Editors 1: Food Enzymes: General Properties and Kinetics 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Nomenclature and Classification 1.2.1 EC 1 Oxidoreductase 1.2.2 EC 2 Transferase 1.2.3 EC 3 Hydrolases 1.2.4 EC 4 Lyases 1.2.5 EC 5 Isomerases 1.2.6 EC 6 Ligases 1.3 Role of Enzyme 1.3.1 Lock-and-Key Model 1.3.2 Induced-Fit Model 1.4 Enzyme Kinetics 1.4.1 Kinetics of Enzyme-Catalysed Reactions 1.4.1.1 Lineweaver-Burk Plot 1.4.1.2 Eadiae-Hofstee Plot 1.4.1.3 Hanes-Woolf Plot 1.5 Applications of Enzymes in Food Industries 1.5.1 Baking Industry 1.5.2 Dairy Industry 1.5.3 Starch Industry 1.5.4 Juice Industry 1.5.5 Brewing Industry References 2: Plants- and Animal-Derived Enzymes and Their Potential Application in Food Processing and Preservation 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Enzyme Working on Carbohydrates 2.2.1 Amylases 2.2.1.1 α-Amylases Food Application of α-Amylases Starch Hydrolysis Baking and Baked Goods Industries Brewery and Fermentations 2.2.1.2 β-Amylases Properties and Applications 2.2.2 Pectic Enzymic 2.2.2.1 Introduction 2.2.2.2 Polygalacturonases 2.2.2.3 Pectin Methylesteraseases 2.2.2.4 Pectate Lyases 2.2.3 Cellulases 2.2.3.1 β-Glucosidases 2.2.3.2 Xylanases 2.2.3.3 Glucoamylase 2.3 Enzymes Working on Proteins 2.3.1 Specificity 2.3.2 Classification 2.3.2.1 Serine Proteases 2.3.2.2 Aspartic (Acid) Proteases 2.3.2.3 Cysteine (Sulfhydryl) Proteases 2.3.2.4 Metalloproteases 2.3.3 Application of Proteases in Food Industry 2.3.3.1 Production of Protein Hydrolysates 2.3.3.2 Application of Proteolytic Enzymes in Dairy Industry Cheese Manufacturing Milk-Clotting Enzymes from Plants 2.3.3.3 Application of Enzymes in Meat Industry Papain Bromelain Ficin Actinidin Calpains 2.3.3.4 Conclusion 2.3.4 Bioactive Peptides 2.4 Enzymes Working on Lipids 2.4.1 Lipases 2.4.2 Lipoxygenases 2.4.3 Phospholipases 2.5 Miscellaneous Enzymes 2.5.1 Catalase 2.5.2 Amino Oxidases 2.5.3 Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase 2.5.4 Lysozyme 2.6 Conclusions References 3: Role of Enzymes in Fruit and Vegetable Processing Industries: Effect on Quality, Processing Method, and Application 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Fruit and Vegetable Composition 3.2.1 Cellulose 3.2.2 Hemicellulose 3.2.3 Pectin 3.2.4 Starch 3.2.5 Lignin 3.3 Enzymes Used in Industrial Processing of Fruits and Vegetables 3.3.1 Pectinases 3.3.2 Cellulases 3.3.3 Hemicellulase and Xylanase 3.3.4 Amylases 3.4 Significance of Enzymes in Food Quality 3.4.1 Enzymatic Reaction on Colour of Fruits and Vegetables 3.4.2 Enzymatic Reaction on Texture of Fruits and Vegetables 3.4.3 Enzymes in Flavour and Aroma Production 3.5 Application of Enzymes in Fruit and Vegetable Processing 3.5.1 Fruit Firming 3.5.2 De-Skinning (Enzymatic Peeling) 3.5.3 Application of Enzymes in Fruit and Vegetable Juice Processing 3.5.3.1 Selection of Fruit, Followed by Washing and Peeling 3.5.3.2 Juice Extraction 3.5.3.3 Clarification and Fining 3.5.4 Role of Enzymes in Wine Processing 3.5.4.1 Enzymes Used in Processing of Wine Pre-fermentation Fermentation Post-fermentation 3.6 Effect of Processing Methods on Enzymes and Vegetables 3.6.1 High-Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) Processing 3.6.2 High-Pressure Homogenization Processing (HPHP) 3.6.3 Ultrasound Processing (Ultrasonication) 3.6.4 Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) 3.6.5 Thermal Processing 3.7 Regulatory Aspects of Food Enzymes Used in Fruit and Vegetable Processing References 4: Production of α, β, and γ-Cyclodextrin Gluconotransferase (CGTase) and Their Applications in Food Industry 4.1 Introduction 4.2 History 4.3 Properties of Cyclodextrins 4.3.1 CGTase Synthesis 4.3.2 CGTase Sources 4.3.3 Methods for Production of Inclusion Complexes 4.3.4 Production Methods 4.4 Alpha Cyclodextrin Production 4.4.1 Production 4.4.2 Properties of α-Cyclodextrin 4.4.3 Enzymatic Production of α-Cyclodextrin 4.4.4 Applications 4.4.5 Alternative Method for the Production of α-Cyclodextrin 4.4.6 Steps for the Production of Alpha Cyclodextrin 4.5 Beta-Cyclodextrin 4.5.1 Alternative Method 4.5.2 Applications of β-Cyclodextrin 4.6 Gamma Cyclodextrin 4.6.1 Applications 4.6.2 Properties References 5: Enzyme in Milk and Milk Products: Role and Application 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Endogenous Enzymes 5.2.1 Lactase 5.2.1.1 Structure 5.2.1.2 Sources Bacterial Sources Yeast Sources Fungal Sources Plants 5.2.1.3 Applications in Dairy Industry Production of Hydrolysed Milk Products Whey Utilization Production of Galacto-Oligosaccharides 5.2.2 Amylase 5.2.2.1 Structure 5.2.2.2 Sources Alpha Amylase 5.2.2.3 Applications in Dairy Industry Effect of Exogenous Amylase on Lactation Performance of Dairy Cows 5.2.3 Transglutaminase 5.2.3.1 Structure 5.2.3.2 Sources 5.2.3.3 Applications in Dairy Industry 5.3 Application in Dairy Industry 5.3.1 Lactose-Free Milk 5.3.2 Production of Lactose-Free Milk 5.3.2.1 Batch Process (Pre-Hydrolysis) 5.3.2.2 Aseptic Process (Post-Hydrolysis) 5.3.3 Other Dairy Products 5.4 Lipase 5.4.1 Characteristics of Lipase 5.4.2 Applications of Lipase in Dairy Industry 5.4.3 Other Applications of Lipase 5.4.4 Introduction of Rennet 5.4.5 Different Types of Rennet References 6: Enzymes in Brewing and Wine Industries 6.1 Background 6.2 Enzymes Used in Breweries 6.2.1 Enzymes Used in Different Stages of Brewing 6.2.1.1 Malting 6.2.1.2 Mashing 6.2.1.3 Pitching 6.2.1.4 Aging 6.2.2 Types of Enzymes in Brewing 6.2.2.1 Amylase 6.2.2.2 Protease 6.2.2.3 beta-Glucanases 6.2.2.4 Exogenous Enzymes 6.2.3 Effect of Enzymes on Quality of Beer 6.3 Enzymes Used in Wineries 6.3.1 Enzymes Used in Different Stages of Wine Preparation 6.3.1.1 Maceration 6.3.1.2 Fermentation 6.3.1.3 Clarification and Stabilization 6.3.1.4 Ageing 6.3.2 Types of Enzymes in the Winery 6.3.2.1 Pectinase 6.3.2.2 Lysozyme 6.3.2.3 Glycosidase 6.3.2.4 Glucanase 6.3.2.5 Protease 6.3.2.6 Urease 6.3.2.7 Lipase 6.3.2.8 Esterhydrolases and Synthetases 6.3.2.9 Phenoloxidases 6.3.3 Effect of Enzymes on Quality of the Wine 6.4 Pros and Cons of Enzymes Used in Brewing and Winery 6.5 Conclusion References 7: Enzymes in Meat, Fish, and Poultry Products Processing and Preservation-I 7.1 Application of Enzymes in Red Meat Industry 7.1.1 Role of Enzymes in Meat Tenderization 7.1.1.1 Endogenous Enzymes Calpains Cathepsins and Other Enzymes 7.1.1.2 Exogenous Enzymes Plant Enzymes Papain Ficin Cucumin Bromelain Zingibain Actinidin 7.1.2 Role of Enzymes in Meat Flavor Development 7.1.3 Approaches for Utilization of Enzymes as in Meat Tenderizer 7.2 Application of Enzymes in Seafood Industry 7.2.1 Deskinning 7.2.2 Production of Fish Protein Hydrolyzate 7.3 Application of Enzymes in Poultry Processing 7.3.1 Utilization of Keratinase for Bioconversion of Feathers 7.4 Application of Enzymes for Enhancement of Flavor 7.5 Future Prospective References 8: Enzymes in Meat, Fish, and Poultry Product Processing and Preservation-II 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Importance of Enzyme in Food Industry 8.2.1 Current Scenario of Meat Production and Role of Enzymes in Meat Processing 8.2.2 Current Scenario of Fish Production and Role of Enzymes in Fish Processing 8.2.3 Current Scenario of Poultry Production and Importance of Enzymes in Poultry Processing 8.3 Enzyme Sources and Types 8.4 Enzymes Involved in Meat Processing and Preservation 8.4.1 Calpains 8.4.2 Cathepsins 8.4.3 Papain 8.4.4 Ficin 8.4.5 Bromelain 8.4.6 Cucumin 8.4.7 Zingibain 8.4.8 Actinidin 8.4.9 Aminopeptidases 8.4.10 Lipases 8.4.11 Fungal Proteases 8.4.12 Elastase 8.4.13 Bacterial Protease 8.4.14 Animal Proteases 8.5 Enzymes in Fish Products Processing and Preservation 8.5.1 Proteases 8.5.2 Lipases 8.5.3 Transglutaminase 8.5.4 Other Enzymes 8.6 Enzymes in Poultry Products Processing and Preservation 8.7 Future Prospects 8.8 Conclusion References 9: Enzymes in Functional Food Development 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Functional Food Components 9.2.1 Functional Food in Health 9.3 Enzyme Application in Functional Food 9.3.1 l-Asparaginase 9.3.2 Carbohydrate Active Enzymes 9.3.3 Chlorophyllase 9.3.4 l-Glutaminase 9.3.5 Lipase 9.3.6 Phytase 9.3.7 Protease 9.3.8 Tannase 9.4 Conclusion References 10: Enzymes as Active Packaging System 10.1 Food Packaging 10.2 Food Package Properties 10.3 Shelf Life 10.4 Active Packaging Systems 10.4.1 Types of Food Active Packaging Systems 10.4.2 Active Compound Release Mechanisms 10.5 Antimicrobial Packing 10.6 Enzyme 10.6.1 Oxygen Scavenger in the Enzyme Packaging System 10.6.2 Time-Temperature Integrator-Indicators 10.7 Conclusion References 11: Enzymes as a Tool in Food Analysis and Foodborne Pathogen Detection 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Enzymes as an Analytical Tool 11.3 Important Enzymes as Relevant Markers for Food Analysis 11.4 Enzyme Marker in Pasteurization of Milk 11.5 Enzyme Marker in Blanching 11.6 Novel Analytical Tools 11.7 Enzymes in the Food Industry 11.8 Beverage and Dairy Industry 11.9 Necessary Enzymes as Relevant Markers for Food Analysis 11.9.1 Alpha-Amylase 11.9.2 Beta Amylase 11.9.3 Glucoamylase 11.9.4 Cellulase 11.9.5 Pectinase 11.9.6 Invertase 11.9.7 Protease 11.9.8 Lipase 11.10 Enzymes as Biosensors 11.10.1 Enzymatic Biosensors Role in Food Technology 11.10.2 First-Generation Enzyme Sensors 11.10.3 Second-Generation Enzyme Sensors 11.10.4 Third-Generation Enzyme Sensors 11.11 Types of Biosensor 11.11.1 Electrochemical Biosensors 11.11.2 Voltammetric Sensors 11.11.3 Novel Analytical Tools 11.12 Food Packaging 11.13 Enzymes for Detecting Food Adulterants 11.14 Methods of Food Adulteration 11.14.1 Melamine 11.14.2 Meat Adulteration 11.14.3 Enzymes for Detecting Contaminants 11.14.4 Biological Contaminants 11.14.5 Chemical Contaminants 11.14.6 Biosensors and Bioamines to Quantify the Freshness of Food Products 11.14.7 Biosensors and Histamine Oxidase Applications 11.14.8 Biosensors to Quantify D and L Amino Acid 11.15 Biosensors and Antioxidants ́ Concentration 11.15.1 Biosensors for Heavy Metals 11.15.2 Biosensors and Ethanol Concentration 11.15.3 Fructose Dehydrogenase-Based Biosensors 11.15.4 Xanthine Oxidase-Based Biosensors on Assessing the Fish Freshness 11.15.5 Lactate Dehydrogenase-Based Biosensors on Quantifying the Lactate Concentration 11.16 Biosensors in Mycotoxins Detection 11.16.1 Epidemiology of Foodborne Illnesses 11.16.2 Worldwide Status of Foodborne Illnesses 11.17 Bacterial Pathogens 11.17.1 Staphylococcus aureus 11.17.2 Listeria monocytogenes 11.17.3 Bacillus cereus 11.17.4 Clostridium perfringens 11.17.5 Clostridium botulinum 11.17.6 Salmonella Species 11.17.7 Shigella Species 11.18 The Foodborne Vibrios 11.18.1 Vibrio vulnificus 11.18.2 Vibrio parahaemolyticus 11.18.3 Vibrio cholerae 11.18.4 Yersinia enterocolitica 11.18.5 Campylobacter 11.18.6 Escherichia coli 11.19 Aflatoxins and Aspergillus flavus 11.19.1 Aflatoxins 11.20 Fusarium and Fumonisins: Toxigenic Fusarium Species 11.20.1 Toxins Produced by Fusarium Species 11.20.2 Other Molds and Mycotoxins 11.21 Foodborne Viruses 11.21.1 Caliciviruses 11.21.2 Hepatitis 11.21.3 Hepatitis A Virus 11.21.4 Hepatitis E Virus 11.22 New Technologies for Microbial Detection 11.23 Microbial Biofilms and Food Safety 11.24 Biofilm in the Food Industry and Health Defects 11.25 Techniques for Controlling the Formation of Biofilm in the Food Industry 11.26 Food Chain-Safety and Quality 11.27 Methodologies for Improved Quality Control Assessment of Food Products 11.28 New Developments in Food Quality Assurance and Safety Control 11.29 Conclusion References 12: Enzymes in Flavor Development and Food Preservation 12.1 Enzyme in Flavor Development 12.1.1 Introduction 12.1.2 Enzymatic Synthesis of Flavor Compounds 12.1.2.1 Lyases Alliinases Cystine Lyases in Plants 12.1.2.2 Isomerase Xylose (Glucose) Isomerase 12.1.2.3 Oxidoreductases Lipoxygenases Alcohol Oxidases and Dehydrogenases Sulfhydryl Oxidases Peroxidases Polyphenol Oxidases 12.1.2.4 Hydrolayses Lipase and Esterases Protease Glutaminase Thermolysin beta-Galactosidase Naringinase(α-L-Rhamnosidase) 12.2 Preservation 12.2.1 Introduction 12.2.2 Lysozyme 12.2.3 Oxidoreductase 12.2.3.1 Lactoperoxidases 12.2.3.2 Xanthine Oxidases 12.2.3.3 Superoxide Dismutases and Catalases 12.2.3.4 Glucose Oxidase 12.3 Conclusion and Future Prospect References 13: Enzymes from Genetically Modified Organisms and Their Current Applications in Food Development and Food Chain 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Use of Genetically Modified Organisms for Enzyme Synthesis 13.2.1 Genetically Modified Organisms 13.2.1.1 GM Plants 13.2.1.2 GM Animals 13.2.1.3 GM Microorganisms 13.2.2 Enzyme Synthesis from GM Microbes 13.2.2.1 Advantages of Using Microbes for Enzyme Synthesis 13.2.2.2 Selection of Host Organism 13.2.2.3 Gene Transfer Methods Expression Vector System Preparation of GM Microbes Other Gene Editing Options 13.2.3 Enzyme Extraction Process 13.3 GMO-Derived Enzymes in Food Industries 13.4 Regulatory Management of GMO-Derived Enzymes 13.4.1 Safety Concern for GMO-Derived Enzymes 13.4.2 Pros and Cons of GM Food Enzymes 13.4.2.1 Improvement in Food Processing 13.4.2.2 Health and Ecological Risks Associated with GM Food Enzymes 13.5 Conclusion and Future Aspects References 14: Current Applications of Enzymes in GM (Genetically Modified) Food Development and Food Chain 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Food Enzymes Production by Genetically Modified Microorganisms 14.2.1 Selection of Host Organism 14.2.1.1 Bacteria 14.2.1.2 Fungi 14.2.2 Construction of Expression Vectors and Transformation Processes 14.2.3 Induction of Gene Expression 14.2.4 New Technologies to Introduce Genetic Modifications 14.3 Recombinant Food Enzymes 14.4 Application of Metabolic Engineering and Synthetic Biology in Food Enzyme Production 14.5 Halal Status of Recombinant Enzymes 14.6 Regulation on GM Enzymes 14.7 Safety Concerns of Recombinant Genes and Enzymes and the Allergenicity Assessments for Development of GM Foods 14.8 Conclusion References 15: Enzyme Immobilization and Its Application Strategies in Food Products 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Methods of Enzyme Immobilization 15.2.1 Irreversible Methods 15.2.1.1 Immobilization via Formation of Covalent Binding 15.2.1.2 Cross-Linking 15.2.1.3 Physical Entrapment 15.2.2 Reversible Methods 15.2.2.1 Adsorption 15.2.2.2 Ionic Bond Formation 15.2.2.3 Immobilization via Disulfide Bridges 15.2.2.4 Affinity Binding 15.3 Classification of Different Support Materials for Immobilization of Food Enzymes 15.3.1 Classification of Different Support Materials Based on the Chemical Structure 15.3.1.1 Inorganic Solid Supports Polymers Nanomaterials 15.3.1.2 Organic Solid Supports 15.4 Multi-Enzyme Immobilization 15.5 Kinetics of Enzyme Immobilization 15.6 The Usage of Enzyme Immobilization for Production of Different Food Products 15.6.1 d-Glucose/Xylose Isomerase for Production of High Fructose Corn Syrup 15.6.2 Epimerase for Production of Allulose 15.6.3 β-Galactosidase for Production of Tagatose 15.6.4 Other Sweeteners Produced by Immobilized Enzymes 15.6.5 Enzyme Immobilization for Debittering of Citrus Fruit Juices 15.6.6 Lipases for Production of Vitamin C Esters and Cocoa Butter Analogs 15.6.7 β-Galactosidase for Lactose Hydrolysis 15.7 The Usage of Immobilized Enzymes in Transforming Food Waste 15.7.1 Carbohydrate Wastes 15.7.2 Lipid Wastes 15.7.3 Proteinaceous Wastes 15.8 Commercialization of Immobilized Enzymes for Usage in Food Industries 15.9 Conclusions References 16: Prospects and Challenges in Food-Grade Enzymes Industrial Production 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Food-Grade Enzymes Screening 16.3 Food-Grade Enzyme Immobilization 16.4 Solid-State Fermentation 16.5 Recombinant DNA/Genetic Engineering 16.6 Food-Grade Enzymes by Protein Engineering 16.7 Application of Bioinformatics Technique in Enzyme Engineering 16.8 Application of Food-Grade Enzymes for Industrial Production 16.8.1 Application of Food-Grade Amylase Enzymes 16.8.2 Application of Food-Grade Protease Enzymes 16.8.3 Application of Food-Grade Lipase Enzymes 16.8.4 Application of Food-Grade Rennet Enzymes 16.8.5 Application of Food-Grade Catalase Enzymes 16.8.6 Application of Food-Grade Lactase Enzymes 16.8.7 Application of Food-Grade Cellulase Enzymes 16.8.8 Application of Food-Grade Invertase Enzymes 16.8.9 Application of Food-Grade Glucose Isomerase Enzymes 16.8.10 Application of Food-Grade Glucose Oxidase Enzymes 16.9 Safety of Food-Grade Enzyme 16.10 Conclusions References 17: Nanotechnology and Food Grade Enzymes 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Overview of Nanotechnology and Nanobiotechnology Applications in Food Industry 17.3 Application of Nanotechnology with Food Enzymes 17.3.1 Enzyme Immobilization in/on Nanocarriers 17.3.1.1 Nanofibers 17.3.1.2 Nanoparticles 17.3.1.3 Nanosheets 17.3.1.4 Nanotubes 17.3.2 Application of Nanobiocatalyst in Food Industry 17.3.2.1 Food Products 17.3.2.2 Application of Nanotechnology with Food Enzymes in Food Packaging 17.3.3 Application of Immobilized Enzyme on/in Nanocarriers as Biosensors in Food Analysis and Safety Aspects 17.4 Risk Assessment of Nanomaterials in Food Industries 17.4.1 Legal Aspects 17.4.2 Toxicity 17.5 Future Trends 17.6 Conclusion References This book covers all the aspects of food-grade enzymes, including their classification, kinetics, microbial production, biosynthetic pathways, commodity-wise industrial applications, and downstream processing strategies. The broad focus of this book is on the application of various classes of enzymes in dairy, fruits and vegetables, cereals and oilseeds, meat and poultry, and brewing and food packaging industries. Certain recent areas such as nanotechnological perspective in enzyme immobilization, infusion strategies as well as its efficient usage in food packaging and preservation are some of the salient highlights of this book. This book also discusses the aspects related to application of enzymes in functional food development and shelf life extension of various commodities food products. This book is beneficial for researchers, students, entrepreneurs, and industry experts in broad disciplines such as food processing, food biotechnology, food microbiology, biochemistry, agriculture, biotechnology, biochemical engineering, and bioprocess technology.