راهنمای غواصی NOAA، ویرایش چهارم

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Diving Program, which is recognized as one of the leading authorities on scientific diving and undersea technology has released the Fourth Edition of the NOAA Diving Manual. This manual was last published in 1991, with over 25,000 books sold within six years. The newly revised manual is published in full color, with 668 coated pages and is available in both soft cover and hard cover formats. It contains basic through advanced applied diving technologies and is written in a non-technical style so it will be informative to all who are interested in safe diving. This completely revised Fourth Edition is one of the most detailed diving reference books available and is a valuable resource to all who are interested in a complete encyclopedia of diving technology, equipment, techniques, and procedures. More than 100 authors and reviewers, selected from a diverse spectrum of experts in recreational, commercial, military, scientific, and research diving, combined their expertise to address the complex issues involved in today's diving. This new edition contains twenty-one chapters on all aspects of diving: techniques to improve the methodology of underwater scientific research, new gear, operational techniques, and details to help the diver dive safely. In addition, there are ten appendices, including a glossary, references, and a detailed index. The technologies of rebreathers and mixed gas diving, including nitrox and oxygen are included; diving physics, physiology, decompression, and diving medicine have also been updated to reflect recent developments in the diving industry. The NOAA Nitrox Tables and the Nitrox Diving Procedures allow deeper and/or longer bottom times to increase diver efficiency when using nitrox, without affecting safety or increasing decompression time. IN THIS SECTION......Page 1 X. INDEX......Page 0 1.2 DIVING BELLS......Page 2 1.3 HELMET (HARD-HAT) DIVING......Page 3 1.4 SCUBA DIVING......Page 4 1.5.1 Saturation Diving Systems......Page 5 1.6 NOAA'S DIVING PROGRAM......Page 6 1.8 SUMMARY......Page 7 IN THIS SECTION......Page 9 2.1.3 Absolute Pressure......Page 10 2.1.5 Partial Pressure......Page 11 2.3.2 Seawater......Page 12 2.5 TEMPERATURE......Page 13 2.6 BUOYANCY (Archimedes' Principle)......Page 15 2.7.2 Oxygen......Page 16 2.7.7 Argon (Ar), Neon (Ne), Hydrogen (H2)......Page 17 2.8.1 Boyle's Law......Page 18 2.8.3 Dalton's Law......Page 20 2.8.4 Henry's Law......Page 21 2.8.5 General Gas Law......Page 22 2.9 MOISTURE IN BREATHING GAS......Page 23 2.10.1 Colors......Page 24 2.11 SOUND......Page 25 IN THIS SECTION......Page 29 3.1.2 Nervous System......Page 30 3.2.1 Process of Respiration......Page 31 3.2.2 Mechanics of Respiration......Page 32 3.2.4 Circulation......Page 33 3.2.4.3 Tissue Use of Oxygen......Page 35 3.2.6.1 Hypoxia......Page 37 3.2.6.2 Carbon Dioxide Toxicity......Page 38 3.2.6.3 Hyperventilation......Page 39 3.2.6.5 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning......Page 40 3.3 EFFECTS OF PRESSURE......Page 41 3.3.1.1 Ears......Page 42 3.3.1.3 Lungs......Page 44 3.3.2.1 Lungs - Pneumothorax......Page 45 3.3.2.2 Lungs - Mediastinal Emphysema......Page 46 3.3.2.4 Arterial Gas Embolism......Page 47 3.3.2.7 Contact Lenses......Page 48 3.3.3.1 Inert Gas Narcosis......Page 49 3.3.3.3.2 Lung and "Whole-Body"......Page 50 3.3.3.3.7 The "Oxygen Clock" or "O2 Limit Fraction"......Page 51 3.3.4.1 Inert Gas Elimination......Page 53 3.3.4.2 Decompression Sickness......Page 55 3.3.4.4 Failures of Treatment......Page 57 3.3.4.7 Patent Foramen Ovale......Page 58 3.4.2 First Aid for Hypothermia......Page 59 3.4.3 Thermal Protection......Page 60 3.4.5 Survival in Cold Water......Page 61 3.4.7 Types of Heat Stress......Page 62 3.5.2 Smoking......Page 63 3.5.3 Illicit Drugs and Alcohol......Page 64 IN THIS SECTION......Page 67 4.1.2 Computing Decompression Tables......Page 68 4.2.1 Single Versus Repetitive Dives......Page 69 4.2.2 Planning Single Dives......Page 70 4.3.1 Recording Repetitive Dive Data......Page 72 4.3.2 Accounting for Residual Nitrogen......Page 73 4.3.3 Finding Repetitive Group Designations Following Single, No-Decompression Dives......Page 74 4.3.4 Determining a Repetitive Group Designation Following a Surface Interval......Page 75 4.3.5 Determining Adjusted No-Decompression Limits......Page 76 4.3.6 Determining Repetitive Group Designations Following Repetitive Dives......Page 79 4.3.8 Determining the Minimum Allowable Surface Interval Between Dives......Page 81 4.3.10 Dealing With Surface Intervals of Less Than Ten Minutes......Page 85 4.4.2 Decompression Diving Considerations......Page 86 4.4.3 Making Mandatory Decompression Stops......Page 87 4.5.1 Diving at Altitude......Page 90 4.5.1.6 Correction of Depth Gauges......Page 91 4.5.1.10 Equilibration at Altitude......Page 93 4.5.1.12 Ascent to Altitude After Diving/Flying After Diving......Page 94 4.6.3.1 Reverse Profile Dives......Page 96 4.7.1 General......Page 97 IN THIS SECTION......Page 101 5.1.1 Face Masks......Page 102 5.1.3 Fins......Page 103 5.2.2 Wet Suits......Page 104 5.2.3 Dry Suits......Page 105 5.2.3.2 Dry-Suit Seals and Accessories......Page 106 5.2.3.6 Dry Suits and Dry-Suit Underwear Maintenance......Page 107 5.2.4 Hot-Water Suits and Systems......Page 108 5.3 OPEN CIRCUIT SCUBA REGULATORS......Page 109 5.5 COMPRESSED AIR......Page 112 5.5.1 General Safety Precautions......Page 113 5.6 AIR COMPRESSORS AND FILTERING SYSTEMS......Page 115 5.6.2 Carbon Monoxide Monitoring Device......Page 117 5.7.1 Cylinder Markings......Page 118 5.7.3 Cylinder Inspection and Maintenance......Page 119 5.7.5 Cylinder Valve and Manifold Assembly......Page 122 5.7.6 Reserve Valve......Page 123 5.10 SUBMERSIBLE PRESSURE GAUGES......Page 125 5.10.1 Use of Submersible Pressure Gauge......Page 126 5.11 BUOYANCY COMPENSATORS......Page 127 5.11.3 Weight Belts and Weights......Page 130 5.11.4 Safety Harnesses......Page 131 5.12.1 Topside Breathing Gas Source......Page 132 5.12.2 Diver Control Manifold......Page 133 5.12.4 Umbilical......Page 134 5.12.5 Full-Face Masks and Helmets......Page 135 5.13 HOOKAH......Page 136 5.14 DEPTH GAUGES......Page 137 5.15 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS......Page 138 5.17 DIVE LIGHTS......Page 139 5.19 SIGNAL DEVICES......Page 140 5.21 SHARK DEFENSE......Page 141 5.23 SURFACE SUPPORT/MARKER FLOAT......Page 142 5.24 DIVE COMPUTERS......Page 143 5.26 UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY AND VIDEO......Page 145 5.26.2 Types of Underwater Camera Systems for Still Photography......Page 146 5.26.4 Electronic Flash......Page 147 5.26.6 The Image Capture Medium: Prints, Slides, and Digital......Page 148 5.26.8 Video Cameras and Housings......Page 149 5.26.10 Camera Maintenance......Page 150 IN THIS SECTION......Page 153 6.1.1 Planning the Dive......Page 154 6.1.3 Preparing for the Dive......Page 156 6.1.4 Tending the Surface-Supplied Diver......Page 157 6.1.5 The Dive......Page 158 6.1.6.2 Blowup......Page 160 6.1.6.7 Ascent......Page 161 6.1.8 Umbilical Diving from Small Boats......Page 162 6.1.9 Umbilical Diving from Ships......Page 163 6.1.13 Supply Pressure Requirements—Demand Systems......Page 164 IN THIS SECTION......Page 167 7.1.1 Selection Standards......Page 168 7.1.2.5 Otolaryngologic......Page 169 7.1.2.13 Musculoskeletal......Page 170 7.2.1.1 Classroom......Page 171 7.2.1.2 Pool and Open Water......Page 172 7.2.2 Umbilical Dive Training......Page 173 7.2.4 Saturation Training......Page 174 7.2.5 Research Diver Training......Page 175 7.2.7 Chamber Operator Training......Page 176 7.2.9 Diver Medical Technician Training......Page 177 7.2.10 Hyperbaric Physician Training......Page 178 7.2.11 Other Training Requirements......Page 179 IN THIS SECTION......Page 181 8.1 DIVE PLANNING......Page 182 8.2.1 Divemaster......Page 183 8.3.1 Surface Environmental Conditions......Page 184 8.3.2 Underwater Environmental Conditions......Page 185 8.4.1 Hand Signals......Page 189 8.5 AIR CONSUMPTION RATES......Page 192 8.5.2 Scuba Duration......Page 195 8.5.3 Scuba Air Requirements......Page 197 8.5.4 Surface-Supplied Air Requirements......Page 198 IN THIS SECTION......Page 201 9.1.1 Traditional Methods......Page 202 9.2.1 Direct Survey Methods......Page 203 9.2.2.1 Underwater Photographic Survey......Page 204 9.2.2.2 Underwater Acoustic Surveys......Page 205 9.3 UNDERWATER RECORDING METHODS......Page 206 9.4.1 Estimating Population Densities......Page 207 9.5 BIOLOGICAL SAMPLING......Page 208 9.5.2 Benthic Organism Sampling......Page 209 9.5.4 Midwater Sampling......Page 211 9.6 SHELLFISH STUDIES......Page 212 9.6.1 Collecting Techniques......Page 213 9.7 TAGGING AND MARKING TECHNIQUES......Page 214 9.8.1 Field Procedures......Page 217 9.8.6 Collecting Techniques......Page 218 9.8.7 Specimen Preparation and Preservation......Page 219 9.9 ARTIFICIAL REEFS/HABITATS......Page 220 9.10.1 Mapping......Page 221 9.10.2 Sampling......Page 226 9.10.4 Experimentation......Page 229 9.11.1 Deployment, Inspection, Maintenance, and Recovery of Instruments......Page 230 9.11.3 Water Samples......Page 232 9.12 ARCHEOLOGY......Page 233 9.12.1 Site Location......Page 234 9.12.2 Site Documentation......Page 235 9.12.3 Site Testing......Page 237 9.12.4 Partial and Full-Site Excavation......Page 238 9.13.4 Diving on Stationary Gear......Page 240 9.14.2 Selecting an Anesthetic......Page 241 9.14.3 Application of Anesthetics......Page 244 9.14.4 Diver-Operated Devices......Page 246 IN THIS SECTION......Page 249 10.1 SEARCH AND RECOVERY......Page 250 10.1.1 Circular Search......Page 251 10.1.2 Line-Tended (Fishtail) Search......Page 252 10.1.5 Tow Diving......Page 254 10.1.6 Drift Diving......Page 256 10.1.7 Deepwater Towbar Search......Page 257 10.1.8 Cable Cross Search......Page 259 10.2 UNDERWATER NAVIGATION......Page 261 10.2.1 Basic Underwater Navigation......Page 263 10.2.5 Choosing and Converting Between Coordinate Systems......Page 264 10.3 INSTRUMENT IMPLANTATION......Page 265 10.4 HYDROGRAPHIC SUPPORT......Page 266 10.5 WIRE DRAGGING......Page 267 10.6.2 Pneumatic Tools......Page 268 10.6.3 Hydraulic Tools......Page 269 10.6.5 Power Velocity Tools......Page 270 10.6.6 Cutting and Welding Tools......Page 271 10.8 SALVAGE......Page 272 10.8.1.2 Internal Buoyancy Lifts......Page 273 10.8.1.3 External Lift Bags......Page 274 10.9 UNDERWATER DEMOLITION AND EXPLOSIVES......Page 276 10.9.1 Types of Explosives......Page 277 IN THIS SECTION......Page 281 11.1 UNDERWATER HABITATS......Page 282 11.1.1 Saturation Diving Habitats......Page 283 11.1.2 Non-Saturation Habitats......Page 290 11.2 SURFACE-BASED SATURATION DIVING SYSTEMS......Page 291 11.3.1 Description......Page 292 11.3.3 Operational Procedures......Page 294 IN THIS SECTION......Page 297 12.1.1 Northeast Coast......Page 298 12.1.2 Mid-Atlantic Coast......Page 299 12.1.4 Gulf of Mexico......Page 300 12.1.5 Northwest Coast......Page 301 12.1.6 Mid-Pacific Coast......Page 302 12.1.8 Central Pacific Ocean......Page 303 12.2.1 Through Surf......Page 304 12.2.3 Through Shore Currents......Page 306 12.2.4 From a Coral Reef......Page 307 12.4 DIVING FROM A SMALL BOAT......Page 308 12.4.1 Entering the Water......Page 309 12.5.1 Great Lakes......Page 310 12.6 OPEN-OCEAN DIVING......Page 311 12.7 CORAL REEFS AND FRINGING REEFS......Page 314 12.8 FAST CURRENT......Page 315 12.9 CAVE DIVING......Page 316 12.10 COLD-WATER DIVING......Page 317 12.11 DIVING UNDER ICE......Page 318 12.12 KELP DIVING......Page 321 12.14 NIGHT DIVING......Page 322 12.15 DIVING IN DAMS AND RESERVOIRS......Page 323 12.15.1 Diving at Dams......Page 324 12.16 RIVER DIVING......Page 326 12.17.1 Personnel......Page 327 12.17.4 Diving While Under Way......Page 328 12.17.4.1 Equipment for Diving While Under Way......Page 330 12.18 PINNACLE AND SEAMOUNT DIVING......Page 331 12.20 DIVING IN LOW AND ZERO VISIBILITY......Page 332 12.22.2 Diving Around Enclosures......Page 333 12.22.5 Oceanographic Engineering and Scientific Diving......Page 334 IN THIS SECTION......Page 337 13.1.1 Biological Pollutants......Page 338 13.1.2 Toxic Chemicals......Page 339 13.1.4 Thermal Conditions......Page 340 13.2 TRAINING......Page 341 13.3.2 Full-Face Masks......Page 342 13.3.5 Dry Suits......Page 343 13.4 POLLUTED-WATER DIVING TECHNIQUES......Page 345 13.5 DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES......Page 348 13.6.1 Resources for Consultation......Page 350 IN THIS SECTION......Page 353 14.1.2 Semiclosed-Circuit Mixed-Gas Systems......Page 354 14.2 REBREATHER DESIGN......Page 356 14.3 HOW REBREATHERS WORK......Page 357 14.4 ADVANTAGES OF REBREATHERS......Page 358 14.6.1 Hypoxia......Page 360 14.7 GENERAL PROCEDURES FOR REBREATHER DIVING......Page 361 IN THIS SECTION......Page 365 15.1.2 NOAA Use of Nitrox Breathing Mixtures......Page 367 15.4 ADVANTAGES OF NITROX......Page 368 15.5.2 Oxygen Exposure Time......Page 369 15.5.5 Fraction of Oxygen for the Mix......Page 370 15.6.1 NOAA Nitrox Diving Tables......Page 371 15.6.3 Custom Tables......Page 372 15.6.6 Diving at Altitude......Page 373 15.7.1 Using Fixed Tables......Page 374 15.7.2 NOAA Nitrox 32% and 36% Decompression Tables......Page 375 15.8.2 Repetitive Dive with a Different Mix......Page 380 15.10.1 Diver Within No-stop Limits......Page 381 15.11.3 Air to be Mixed with Oxygen......Page 382 15.11.4 Cleaning for Oxygen Service......Page 383 15.12.1 Scuba Cylinders......Page 384 15.12.4 Cylinder Labeling......Page 385 15.13.1 Commercial Pre-Mix......Page 386 15.13.3 Oxygen Fill Formula......Page 387 15.13.3.1 Oxygen to Add Charts......Page 389 15.13.7 Boosting Pressure to Scuba Cylinders......Page 390 15.14.3.1 Calibrating Gas......Page 391 15.14.3.4 Analyzing the Nitrox Cylinder......Page 392 IN THIS SECTION......Page 395 16.1.1 Nitrogen and Narcosis......Page 396 16.1.3 Other Inert Gases (Hydrogen, Neon, Argon)......Page 397 16.3 DIVING WITH SPECIAL GAS MIXES......Page 398 16.3.1.2.2 Selecting an Appropriate Trimix......Page 400 16.3.1.2.4 Equivalent Narcotic Depth......Page 401 16.3.1.2.6 Trimix Decompression Tables......Page 402 16.3.1.3 Diving with Helium-Oxygen Mixtures......Page 403 16.4.1 Backplate, Harness, and Buoyancy Compensator......Page 404 16.4.4 Depth and Timing Devices......Page 405 16.5.1.3 Inert Gas Purity......Page 406 16.6.1.3 Use of Nitrox for Mixing Trimix......Page 407 16.7.1 Analysis for Gases Other Than Oxygen......Page 408 16.7.1.2 Helium Analysis......Page 409 16.8 CYLINDER IDENTIFICATION AND......Page 410 IN THIS SECTION......Page 413 17.1 PRINCIPLES OF SATURATION DIVING......Page 414 17.2 BREATHING GASES......Page 417 17.3 LIFE SUPPORT CONSIDERATIONS......Page 418 17.4.1 General Procedures......Page 419 17.4.2 Emergency Procedures (Habitats)......Page 420 17.4.4 Hazardous Materials......Page 422 17.5.1 Descending Excursions......Page 423 17.5.3 Ascending Excursions......Page 427 17.6 DECOMPRESSION AFTER AN AIR OR NITROGEN-OXYGEN SATURATION DIVE......Page 428 17.6.4 Flying After a Saturation Decompression......Page 430 IN THIS SECTION......Page 437 18.0 GENERAL......Page 438 18.1 HYPERBARIC CHAMBERS......Page 439 18.2 TRANSPORTABLE CHAMBERS......Page 441 18.3.1.4 Diving Physician......Page 442 18.3.3 Gas Supply......Page 443 18.3.4 Chamber Ventilation and Gas Calculations......Page 445 18.3.8 Electrical Systems......Page 447 18.5 FIRE PREVENTION......Page 448 18.5.1 Ignition......Page 449 18.5.5 Detection......Page 450 18.5.7 Breathing Masks and Escape......Page 451 IN THIS SECTION......Page 453 19.2 ANIMALS THAT ABRADE, LACERATE, OR PUNCTURE......Page 454 19.2.2 Starfish......Page 455 19.2.3 Rays and Fishes......Page 456 19.3.1 Sponges......Page 459 19.3.2 Hydroids, Jellyfishes, and Sea Anemones......Page 460 19.3.4 Marine Worms......Page 463 19.4.1 Fishes......Page 464 19.4.2 Reptiles......Page 468 19.4.5 Aquatic Mammals......Page 469 19.6.3 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning......Page 471 19.6.4 Tetrodotoxin “Puffer” Fish Poisoning......Page 472 IN THIS SECTION......Page 475 20.1.2 Diving Operations Medical (First Aid) Kit......Page 476 20.1.3 Primary Medical Treatment Kit......Page 477 20.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EMERGENCY MEDICAL CARE......Page 478 20.4.1 Airway Assessment and Management......Page 479 20.4.4 Emergency Airway Management and Artificial Ventilation......Page 481 20.4.5.2 Early Defibrillation......Page 482 20.5 STOPPING LIFE-THREATENING BLEEDING......Page 483 20.6 USE OF SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN......Page 484 20.7.1 The Head-To-Toe Examination......Page 486 20.7.2 Taking the Necessary History......Page 488 20.9 WOUNDS......Page 490 20.10 BURNS......Page 491 20.11 FRACTURES AND SPRAINS......Page 492 20.12.2 Cardiovascular Emergencies......Page 493 20.12.4 Convulsions (Seizure)......Page 494 20.13 HEAT ILLNESSES......Page 495 20.14 HYPOTHERMIA MANAGEMENT......Page 496 20.15 SEASICKNESS ( MOTION SICKNESS)......Page 497 IN THIS SECTION......Page 499 21.1 PANIC......Page 500 21.2.1 During Training......Page 501 21.2.5 During Ascent and Exit......Page 502 21.3.1 Loss of Air Supply......Page 503 21.4 ASSESSING A PROBLEM......Page 505 21.5 RESCUE PROCEDURES......Page 506 21.5.1 Victim Submerged and Unconscious......Page 507 21.5.2 Victim Submerged and Conscious......Page 508 21.5.5 Victim on the Surface and Conscious......Page 510 21.5.6 Towing a Victim in the Water......Page 511 21.5.7 Leaving the Water with a Victim......Page 512 21.6.1 Summoning Aid......Page 514 21.6.2.2 Immediate Care Protocol......Page 516 21.6.2.3 Additional Advanced Life Support (ALS)......Page 517 21.7 EVACUATION BY AIR......Page 518 21.9 ACCIDENT REPORTING PROCEDURES......Page 519