Neurocognitive Development: Disorders and Disabilities (Volume 174) (Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Volume 174)

This is one volume of a two-volume work on neurocognitive development, focusing separately on normative and non-normative development. The disorders and disabilities volume focuses on disorders of intellectual abilities, language, learning memory as well as psychiatric developmental disorders. The developmental aspects of neurological diseases in children is also covered. Chapters discuss when and how these disorders develop, the genetics and neurophysiology of their operation, and their evaluation and assessment in clinical practice. Assessment, treatment, and long-term outcome are provided as well as advances in methods and tools for assessment. This book will serve as a comprehensive reference to researchers in cognitive development in neuroscience, psychology, and medicine, as well as to clinicians and allied health professionals focused on developmental disabilities (child neurologists, pediatric neuropsychologists, child psychiatrists, speech and language therapists, and occupational therapists.) Summarizes research on neurocognitive developmental disorders and disabilities Includes disorders of intellectual abilities, language, learning, memory, and more Separately covers developmental aspects of neurological diseases in children Features advances in methods and tools of assessment Reviews patient care, rehabilitation, and long-term outcomes Provides interdisciplinary information of use to both researchers and clinicians Cover Series Page Copyright Copyright Handbook of Clinical Neurology 3rd Series Available titles Foreword Foreword Preface Preface Contributors Contributors 1 Developmental coordination disorder Definition and Prevalence Definition Terminology Prevalence Phenotypic Presentation Symptoms and clinical manifestations Motor disorder screening Clinical expressions of DCD in children Clinical expressions of DCD in adolescents and adults Diagnosis Diagnostic criteria for DCD Discussion about diagnostic criteria and associated comorbidity factors Etiology Genetics Brain studies Etiopathogenetic hypotheses Visuospatial deficit and perception-action hypothesis Procedural skills Hypothesis of internal modeling or motor control deficit Executive function deficit Treatment and Intervention Case Study Conclusion References 2 Language disorders Definition and Prevalence Phenotype Etiology Influences of language environment Biological risk factors Genetic factors Neurobiology Cognitive models of DLD Auditory processing explanations Limited processing capacity Procedural deficits Clinical Diagnosis, Assessment, and Treatment Diagnostic assessment Intervention Clinical Case References 3 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Introduction History ADHD theories Phenotypic Diagnosis Diagnostic process Etiology Biological Environmental Treatment and Intervention Medication treatments Psychosocial treatments School-based interventions Conclusions References 4 Developmental dyslexia: A new look at clinical features and brain mechanisms Main Features of Clinical Presentation The ``classical ́ ́ phonological dyslexia presentation The ``visuoattentional ́ ́ subtype of dyslexia The ``dyspraxic ́ ́ form of dyslexia Comorbidities and associated features Etiologic Factors Genetics of dyslexia Effect of socioeconomic status (SES) Effect of maternal language The Mechanism of Dyslexia and Its Neurocognitive Substrates The history of brain imaging in dyslexia: Early fMRI studies Morphological brain studies in dyslexia Toward alternative, nonphonological explanations of dyslexia Impaired cross-modal integration: A new direction with multiple applications Therapeutic Considerations The ``classical ́ ́ phonological approach The effects of attention and executive function remediations on dyslexia Epilog: Music Training as a Tool for the Remediation of Dyslexia References 5 Learning disabilities: Developmental dyscalculia Definition and Prevalence Phenotypic Profile and Diagnosis Magnitude representation/processing Domain-general deficits Diagnosis Etiology Treatment and Intervention References 6 Borderline intellectual functioning Definition and Terminology Insufficient Recognition of Borderline Intellectual Functioning The Concept of ESSENCE Borderline Intellectual Functioning and Attention Deficits Borderline Intellectual Functioning and Other ESSENCE Academic Functioning in Children With Borderline Intellectual Functioning Borderline Intellectual Functioning and Overall Mental Health Assessment Etiology The Need for Adapted Education at School School for Children With Borderline Intellectual Functioning Intervention A Case Vignette Conclusion References 7 Nonverbal learning disability (developmental visuospatial disorder) The Origins of Research on Nonverbal Learning Disability Studies on NLD Neuropsychologic functioning of children with NLD Academic functioning of children with NLD Social functioning of children with NLD Is NLD a Distinct Diagnostic Category Than Other Neurodevelopmental Disorders? NLD: The Criteria for Diagnosis? References 8 Memory dysfunctions Introduction Memory Dysfunction in Developmental Syndrome Amnesia Developmental syndrome amnesia The consequences of the early-onset amnesic syndrome Learning and encoding processes Knowing without remembering our life From clinical observations of DA to theoretical considerations Valentine Case History: A Case of Developmental Amnesia Memory Dysfunction in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy in Children Temporal lobe epilepsy Memory dysfunction in TLE in children Episodic memory dysfunction Unilateral TLE and material-specific memory deficits More ecological assessment of episodic memory Prognosis of temporal lobe surgery in memory dysfunctions Remediation of Memory Dysfunction in Children with DA and TLE Developmental amnesia Temporal lobe epilepsy Conclusion and Future Directions References 9 Intellectual disability Terminology and Diagnostic Criteria Semantic issues: Evolution of concepts Criteria for positive ID diagnosis Degrees of severity of ID: Intellectual disorders, disabilities, and support needs Differential diagnoses of ID Epidemiology Prevalence Etiology Pathophysiology Molecular and cellular neurobiologic dysfunction Defective cognitive processes and developmental trajectories Identification and Screening Antenatal or perinatal identification of vulnerable children Identifying warning signs at birth Unusual development in children with no risk factors Etiologic Diagnosis Why look for a cause of ID? Clinical approach to etiologic diagnosis The role of complementary examinations (Fig. 9.4) Multidimensional Assessments and Medicopsycho-Educational Support Health and associated somatic pathologies Assessment of cognitive skills and associated psychopathologic disorders Evaluation of socioemotional skills and self-determination abilities in situations of interaction Family skills and support needs Medical Follow-Up and Educational Support Medical and educational follow-up in childhood Medical follow-up in adults and lifelong perspectives Acknowledgments References 10 Autism spectrum disorder Definition Prevalence Positive Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Assessment Etiology and Mechanisms Treatment and Support References 11 Epilepsy Definitions and Epidemiology Epidemiology: Incidence and prevalence of epilepsy Current definition of epileptic seizures, epilepsy, and status epilepticus (Table 11.1) Current classification of seizure type (Table 11.2) Phenotypic Diagnosis Is this paroxysmal event an epileptic seizure? Differential diagnosis (Table 11.3) What kind of epilepsy is it? Current classification of seizures, epilepsies, and epilepsy syndrome (Fig. 11.1) Recurrence risk Etiology Purpose of etiologic assessment Etiologic investigations Comorbidities Epilepsy and developmental conditions Epilepsy and intellectual disability (ID) Specific learning disabilities Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) Cognitive/behavioral profile in the main childhood epilepsy syndromes: Childhood absence epilepsy (CAE) and childhood ep Cognitive/behavioral profile of drug-resistant focal-onset epilepsy Epileptic encephalopathy vs developmental and epileptic encephalopathy: Fundamentally different concepts Treatment and Intervention Pharmacologic treatment When to start medication? Which treatment to choose When to discontinue medication Remission and intractability Epilepsy surgery Other therapies Ketogenic diet (KD) Vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) Interventions according to comorbidity Conclusion References Further reading 12 Multidimensional impairments Introduction Children With Complex Developmental Disorders (CDDs) Are Multidimensionally Impaired Multiple complex developmental disorder (MCDD) Multidimensional impairment (MDI) From a deficit in attention, motor control, and perception to ESSENCE Developmental disharmony: A developmental and dimensional approach Multidimensionally Impaired Children in a Developmental Perspective Case Report Early development and clinical history Multidimensional assessment Somatic assessment Psychiatric and cognitive assessment Outcome Conclusion References 13 Interdisciplinary assessment Definition Clinical Background and Challenges An integrated developmental model Collaborative challenges Existing Assessment Guidelines General guidelines Disorder-specific guidelines Autism spectrum disorder Screening for autism spectrum disorders Diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Intellectual disabilities and other neurodevelopmental disorders Age-specific considerations for preterm infants Alternative Assessment Procedures Provisional Conclusions References 14 Sensory assessment: Neurophysiology in neonates and neurodevelopmental outcome Introduction Electroencephalography in Neonates EEG in neonatal seizures EEG in hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy EEG in neonates with congenital heart disease EEG in preterm infants Evoked Potentials in Neonates Visual evoked potentials VEPs in preterm infants VEPs and neonatal encephalopathy VEPs in neonatal hypoglycemia Brainstem auditory evoked potentials BAERs in hyperbilirubinemia BAERs in neonatal encephalopathy BAERs in neonatal meningoencephalitis BAER in congenital infection BAERs in meningomyelocele Somatosensory evoked potentials SEPs in preterm infants SEPs in neonatal encephalopathy SEPs in infants with congenital heart defect Conclusions References 15 Neurologic assessment Essential Concepts of the Neurologic Assessment Setting and Age-Related Approach The Importance of History Taking What Is Being Tested and What Is Normal-The Classic Neurologic Examination Cognitive functions and behavior Cranial nerves CN I, olfactory nerve Vision and eye movements: CN II, CN III, CN IV, and CN VI-Optic, oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens nerve ( CN V, trigeminal nerve CN VII, facial nerve CN VIII, acoustic or vestibulocochlear nerve CN IX and CN X-Glossopharyngeal and vagus nerve CN XI, spinal accessory nerve CN XII, hypoglossal nerve Motor system Sensory system Interpretation and Situation-Related Approach of the Neurologic Assessment Exploiting the Potential of New Technologies: Videoing the Patient Conclusions Further reading 16 Psychiatric assessment Psychiatric Comorbidity in Neurodevelopmental Disorders General Considerations About Psychiatric Assessment in Children and Adolescents With NDDs ASD and anxiety disorders Intellectual disability and challenging behaviors ADHD and bipolar disorders or ADHD and disruptive mood dysregulation disorder? ADHD and bipolar disorders ADHD and disruptive mood dysregulation disorder Standardized Clinical Assessment in NDDs Scales Comprehensive and broadband scales Scales that assess more focused domains Interviews Conclusions References Web references 17 Neuropsychologic assessment General Aspects of Pediatric Neuropsychologic Assessments Indications Minimum information required to efficiently plan an assessment Specific Stages and Considerations of the Pediatric Neuropsychologic Assessment Case history Cognitive assessment Quantitative assessment Qualitative assessment Behavioral and socioaffective functioning Interpretation Pediatric Neuropsychologic Assessment in Specific Situations Conclusion References 18 Structural neuroimaging Introduction Neuroimaging Methods in Pediatrics Acquisition methods Processing and computational tools Normal Brain Development Cortical gray matter White matter Subcortical structures Gender differences in brain development Abnormal Brain Development Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Autism spectrum disorder Prematurity Epilepsy Pediatric brain cancer Challenges in Pediatric Neuroimaging Conclusion References 19 Functional magnetic resonance imaging Introduction Basic Principles of fMRI Task-Based fMRI Resting-State fMRI Psychophysiological Interactions Machine Learning Methods Interpretation of fMRI Results Applications of fMRI in the Field of Developmental Disorders fMRI in developmental dyslexia Task-based fMRI in dyslexia Resting-state fMRI in dyslexia Clinical applications of fMRI in dyslexia fMRI in developmental language disorders (DLDs) Task-based fMRI in DLDs Clinical applications of fMRI in DLDs fMRI in epilepsy Task-based fMRI in epilepsy Resting-state fMRI in epilepsy fMRI as a clinical tool in epilepsy Challenges and Limitations Task compliance Movement Choice of baseline in task-based fMRI Statistical analysis, power, and sample size Open science frameworks to increase reproducibility Future Directions Conclusion References 20 Clinical neurophysiology: Research methods and event-related potential components as assessment tools Introduction to ERP Components A Brief History of Electrophysiology Experimental Design Research designs Choosing experimental protocols Event-Related Potentials as Assessment Tools Paradigm development for neurocognitive assessment: Adults Paradigm development for neurocognitive assessment: Children and adolescents The Future Acknowledgments References 21 New technologies and future trends Development of Medical Technology and Related Challenges Epilepsy Technologies for Other Neurodevelopmental Disorders Diagnosis Telemedicine Body sensors Artificial intelligence Interventions Gaming Multisensory integration Improving quality of life and day-to-day activities Communication technologies Robotics Challenges of Developing Technologies From Concept to Patient Care Future Directions References 22 Multidisciplinary treatment plan for challenging behaviors in neurodevelopmental disorders Introduction11Abbreviations used in the chapter are listed at the end of the chapter before References section. Main Treatment of CB in Children and Adolescents with NDD Nonpharmacologic interventions Behavioral interventions Other interventions Pharmacologic Interventions General context Drugs for CB in NDD that have been assessed in randomized controlled trials Moving to Complex and Resistant Situations Defining the challenges to be faced Main clinical presentations Establishment of an Intervention Framework That Can Contain the Risk of Injury Inherent to Behavioral Crisis Conditions for Producing a Challenging Behavior Developmental and dimensional approach Comorbidities Medical conditions Psychiatric comorbidities Integrative Reasoning Multimodal framework (Fig. 22.3) Case presentation Clinical framework Interventions References 23 The therapeutic alliance between the child, parents, and health professionals Definition and Concept of Therapeutic Alliance Components of Therapeutic Alliance Factors Affecting Therapeutic Alliance Healthcare professional characteristics having positive impact on therapeutic alliance Healthcare professional characteristics having negative impact on therapeutic alliance Effect of client-therapist gender on therapeutic alliance Therapeutic Alliance in the Context of Children as Patients Effect of therapeutic alliance on outcome and other variables Factors for Enhancing Therapeutic Alliance Placebo/Nocebo Effect Operating in Therapeutic Alliance Measuring Therapeutic Alliance References 24 Principles of early intervention Introduction Neuroplasticity in the Young Brain: An Opportunity for Intervention Promoting Adaptive Neuroplasticity: The Role of Positive Environmental Enrichment Enriching the Social Environment: The Role of Intersubjectivity From Principles to Practice Conclusions References 25 Cross-modal plasticity and central deficiencies: the case of deafness and the use of cochlear implants Introduction Neurocognitive Development of Deaf Children Language development in deaf children The specific case of deaf children with a CI Spoken language development in children with a CI Written language development in deaf children with a CI Academic achievement of deaf children with a CI Neuropsychologic development of deaf children with a CI Discussion Essential considerations for neuropsychologic assessment of deaf children The specific case of sign language native deaf children References 26 Cognitive remediation for neurodevelopmental disabilities Introduction Definition of Higher Cognitive Functions Remediation Approaches Functional approach Cognitive approach Integrative approaches Biopsychologic approaches Conclusions and Perspectives Acknowledgments References 27 Education for students with neurodevelopmental disabilities-Resources and educational adjustments Introduction A Tiered Framework of Interventions Three-tiered levels Tier one: Universal interventions Tier two: Targeted interventions Tier three: Specialized interventions Conditions and Drivers of Intervention Fidelity and Effectiveness One size does not fit all Collaborative practices Within the classroom Beyond the classroom Training and support for school staff Conclusion Acknowledgment References 28 Quality of life of children and families Conceptual and Measurement Considerations Defining QOL Measurement approaches Selecting a measure Construct Measurement properties Methodological considerations Proxy reporting Assessment in clinical practice Family QOL Youth Quality of Life Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Autism spectrum disorder Developmental coordination disorder Epilepsy Intellectual disability Family Quality of Life Parental quality of life Parental needs Conclusion References Index