Neural Circuit and Cognitive Development : Comprehensive Developmental Neuroscience

__Neural Circuit and Cognitive Development, Second Edition,__ the latest release in the __Comprehensive Developmental Neuroscience__ series, provides a much-needed update to underscore the latest research in this rapidly evolving field, with new section editors discussing the technological advances that are enabling the pursuit of new research on brain development. This volume is devoted mainly to anatomical and functional development of neural circuits and neural systems and cognitive development. Understanding the critical role these changes play in neurodevelopment provides the ability to explore and elucidate the underlying causes of neurodevelopmental disorders and their effect on cognition. This series is designed to fill the knowledge gap, offering the most thorough coverage of this field on the market today and addressing all aspects of how the nervous system and its components develop. Neural Circuit and Cognitive Development Copyright Contributors 1 - Neural circuits of the mammalian main olfactory bulb 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Synaptic organization of the main olfactory bulb 1.2.1 Organization of sensory inputs 1.2.2 Synaptic microcircuits 1.2.2.1 Glomerular layer microcircuits 1.2.2.2 External plexiform layer microcircuits 1.2.3 Neural computation 1.2.3.1 Contrast enhancement 1.2.3.2 Slow timescale decorrelation 1.2.3.3 Fast timescale synchronization 1.2.3.4 Downstream decoding 1.2.4 Modulation of sensory processing 1.2.4.1 Local circuits and centrifugal innervation 1.2.4.2 Brain state and context 1.3 Plasticity in the main olfactory bulb 1.3.1 Adult neurogenesis 1.3.1.1 Regeneration of sensory input 1.3.1.2 Adult-born interneurons 1.3.2 Circuit and synaptic plasticity 1.4 Concluding remarks Acknowledgments References 2 - Functional circuit development in the auditory system 2.1 Introduction to auditory system development 2.1.1 A neurobiological approach to studying auditory system development 2.1.2 Overview of auditory circuitry 2.1.3 Basic concepts of cochlear transduction 2.1.4 Scope of this chapter 2.2 Development of peripheral circuits 2.2.1 Development and maturation of cochlear hair cells 2.2.2 Development of the place code 2.2.3 Development of afferent and efferent peripheral circuits 2.2.3.1 Phase 1: initial wiring of the cochlea 2.2.3.2 Phase 2: synapse formation and refinement 2.2.3.3 Phase 3: ear opening and maturation of response to sound 2.2.4 Summary and themes 2.3 Development of brain stem circuits 2.3.1 Functional circuit assembly in the brain stem 2.3.2 Development of fine-scale connectivity in the medial superior olive 2.3.3 Development of fine-scale connectivity to the lateral superior olive 2.3.4 Afferent regulation of cochlear nucleus development 2.3.5 Afferent regulation of third-order brain stem nuclei 2.3.6 Influence of the source and pattern of afferent activity on brain stem circuits 2.3.7 Conclusions 2.4 Development of auditory midbrain and forebrain circuits 2.4.1 Development of thalamocortical subplate circuitry 2.4.2 Development of local cortical circuits 2.4.3 Afferent regulation of higher auditory circuit development 2.4.4 Experience-dependent influences on circuit development 2.4.5 Developmental regulation over reinstating hearing in the deaf 2.4.6 Conclusions and directions for future research References 3 - Development of the superior colliculus/optic tectum 3.1 Nomenclature 3.2 Functional role 3.3 General anatomical organization of the superior colliculus 3.4 Spatial topographies, multisensory integration, and motor output 3.5 The maturation of the superior colliculus 3.5.1 The neonate 3.5.2 Sensory chronology 3.5.3 The development of multisensory neurons 3.5.4 Superficial-deep (multisensory) layer maturational delay 3.5.5 The development of multisensory integration 3.5.6 The impact of sensory experience on the maturation of multisensory integration 3.6 Summary Acknowledgments References 4 - Cerebellar circuits 4.1 Overview of the microcircuit in the cerebellar cortex 4.1.1 Cell types and afferent fibers 4.1.2 Generation of neurons that constitute microcircuit on PCs 4.1.3 Compartmentalization of the cerebellum 4.2 Development of CF-PC synapses 4.2.1 Multiple innervation of PCs by CFs in early postnatal period 4.2.2 Functional differentiation of multiple CFs 4.2.3 Dendritic translocation of single CFs 4.2.4 Early phase of CF synapse elimination 4.2.5 Late phase of CF synapse elimination 4.3 Development of PF-PC synapses 4.3.1 Formation of PF-PC synapses 4.3.2 Stabilization and maintenance of PF-PC synapses 4.3.3 Developmental elimination of PF-PC synapses 4.3.4 Heterosynaptic competition between PF and CF inputs 4.4 Development of inhibitory synapses from basket cells and stellate cells to PCS 4.4.1 Formation of basket Cell-PC synapses 4.4.2 Formation of stellate Cell-PC synapses 4.4.3 Activity-dependent remodeling of inhibitory synapses 4.5 Summary and conclusions Acknowledgments References 5 - Cortical columns 5.1 The loose and uncritical use of the term in ways that are so generalized as to be unhelpful and even confusing 5.2 A lack of a universal presence of certain columns within cortical areas, brains, and species is undermining the idea that s ... 5.2.1 The use of physiological methods to reveal columns 5.2.2 Columnar organization of some afferent and efferent projections 5.2.2.1 Modules of visual cortex 5.2.2.2 Ocular dominance columns/stripes 5.2.2.3 Orientation columns 5.2.3 Gene expression in the cortex in ``columnar'' fashion 5.2.3.1 A system of interleaving modules in rodent layer II 5.2.3.2 Overlap between columnar entities within the same structures; combining physiological and anatomical definitions 5.3 General concept that the cortical column (even just an arbitrary unit column that includes the full depth of the cortex) ha ... 5.3.1 Number of neurons in a cortical column 5.4 Lack of correlation between the absence or presence of particular columns and a specific sensory or cognitive processing ne ... 5.4.1 Microscopic and macroscopic cell patterning defining cortical modules 5.4.2 Are barrels cortical columns? 5.4.2.1 A system of interleaving modules in rodent layer VI 5.4.2.2 Function of barrels 5.4.2.3 Microcolumns and apical dendritic bundles 5.4.3 Complex relationship relations between minicolumns and dendritic bundles 5.4.3.1 Columns outside the mammalian isocortex 5.4.3.2 Columns in nonmammals 5.4.4 What is the function of a cortical column? 5.4.5 Columns in neuropathology 5.5 What is the correlation between the columnar development of the brain and future columns 5.5.1 Cortical columns during development 5.5.1.1 Ontogenic units/columns-the fundamental building blocks in the developing neocortex 5.5.1.2 Sibling neuron circuits in the developing columns 5.5.2 Transient columnar domains during development 5.5.3 The way forward Acknowledgments References 6 - Spike timing-dependent plasticity 6.1 Introduction: synaptic plasticity and synaptic learning rules 6.2 Discovery of STDP 6.3 Definition and forms of STDP 6.3.1 Hebbian STDP 6.3.2 Anti-Hebbian STDP 6.4 STDP is part of a broader, multifactor plasticity rule 6.5 Functional properties of STDP 6.5.1 Properties of Hebbian STDP 6.5.2 Properties of anti-Hebbian STDP 6.5.3 STDP and circuit homeostasis 6.5.4 Neuromodulation of STDP 6.6 Cellular mechanisms for STDP 6.6.1 Mechanisms for LTP and LTD components of STDP 6.6.2 Dendritic excitability and STDP 6.7 Is STDP a realistic learning rule in vivo? 6.8 How does STDP contribute to development of neural circuits? 6.9 How does STDP contribute to adult plasticity and learning? 6.10 Summary: role of spike timing in synaptic plasticity References 7 - Circuit development in somatosensory cortex 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The mature cortical circuit 7.2.1 Supragranular excitatory neurons 7.2.2 L4 excitatory neurons 7.2.3 Infragranular excitatory neurons 7.2.4 Inhibitory neuron connectivity 7.2.5 Corticothalamic and corticocortical inputs 7.3 Connections during birth and migration 7.4 Thalamocortical innervation 7.5 Developmental critical periods and barrel formation in the somatosensory system 7.5.1 Formation of barrels 7.5.2 Receptive fields of barrel cortex neurons 7.5.3 Critical periods for functional connectivity of ascending somatosensory pathways 7.5.4 Intracortical excitatory plasticity 7.5.5 Critical periods for inhibition in barrel cortex 7.6 Adult plasticity 7.7 Conclusion List of acronyms and abbreviations Acknowledgments References 8 - Motor cortex connections 8.1 General principles of motor cortex: history, evolution, and organization 8.1.1 What is the ``motor cortex''? 8.1.2 Discovery of motor cortex: historical outlook 8.1.3 Evolution of the motor cortex 8.1.4 Topographic organization of the motor cortex: species-specific organization 8.2 The connectivity of the motor cortex-afferent and efferent projections 8.2.1 Efferent connectivity of the motor cortex 8.2.1.1 Anatomical organization of subcerebral projections 8.2.1.2 Functional organization of subcerebral projections 8.2.1.2.1 Cortico-subcerebral circuits involved in control of fine/skilled motor function 8.2.1.2.2 Cortico-subcerebral circuits important for general locomotor and posture control 8.2.1.2.3 Cortico-subcerebral circuits involved in motor planning 8.2.1.2.4 Cortico-subcerebral circuits involved in control of facial movement 8.2.1.3 Organization of motor cortex-spinal cord connectivity 8.2.1.4 Species-specific differences of corticospinal connectivity 8.2.1.5 Organization of motor cortex-striatum connectivity 8.2.1.6 Organization of reciprocal connectivity between motor cortex and the thalamus 8.2.2 Afferent connectivity of the motor cortex 8.2.2.1 Organization intracortical motor cortex connections 8.2.2.2 Organization of basal forebrain afferent projections to motor cortex 8.3 Development of motor cortex connections 8.3.1 Specification and differentiation of subcerebral projection neurons 8.3.2 Axon guidance of subcerebral, including corticospinal projections 8.3.3 Development of corticospinal connectivity in the spinal cord 8.3.4 Activity-dependent developmental refinement of corticospinal connectivity 8.3.5 Molecular development of human corticospinal circuitry 8.3.6 Development of intracortical and subcortical afferent connectivity 8.3.6.1 Development of thalamic connectivity 8.3.6.2 Development of intracortical connectivity 8.3.6.3 Development of afferent cholinergic inputs from the basal forebrain 8.4 Technological advances to enable future investigations of motor cortex connectivity and function including in nonhuman prim ... 8.5 Conclusion References 9 - Organization and development of hippocampal circuits 9.1 Introduction: circuit organization 9.1.1 Adult organization: a brief review 9.1.1.1 Subfield features and numbers 9.1.1.2 Zonal specializations. Example: upper and deep CA1 9.1.2 Functional backdrop 9.1.2.1 The spatial navigation system in rodents 9.1.2.2 Developmental milestones in humans 9.2 Circuit development 9.2.1 Early stages 9.2.2 Neurogenesis 9.2.3 Connections: EC 9.2.4 Cell autonomous organization 9.2.5 Neural activity 9.2.6 Maturational events 9.2.7 Coordinated network activity 9.3 Postnatal development of electrophysiological patterns 9.3.1 Postnatal development of single cell electrophysiological properties 9.3.1.1 Entorhinal cortex layer II stellate cells 9.3.1.2 Postnatal development of the dentate gyrus 9.3.1.3 Postnatal development of CA3 pyramidal cells 9.3.1.4 Postnatal development of CA1 pyramidal cells 9.3.1.5 Postnatal development of interneurons 9.3.2 Early developmental patterns of brain activity 9.3.3 Development of major hippocampal rhythms 9.3.3.1 Development of theta oscillations 9.3.3.2 Development of SWR 9.3.3.2.1 Summary 9.4 Conclusion References 10 - Basal ganglia circuits 10.1 Introduction 10.2 General organization of the basal ganglia 10.3 Organization of corticostriatal projections 10.4 The striatum 10.4.1 Physiology 10.4.2 Striatal interneurons 10.5 The effect of direct and indirect striatal output pathways on behavior 10.6 Direct and indirect striatal output pathways 10.7 External segment of the globus pallidus 10.8 The subthalamic nucleus 10.9 Development of the basal ganglia 10.10 Summary References 11 - Development of the neuronal circuitry of the cerebellar cortex 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Organization of the adult circuitry of the cerebellar cortex 11.2.1 Cajal and the cerebellar circuit 11.3 The modular organization of the cerebellar cortex 11.4 Development of the heterogeneity of Purkinje cells 11.5 Development and refinement of climbing fiber projections 11.6 Development and refinement of mossy fiber projections 11.7 Cerebellar interneurons in the cerebellar circuit 11.7.1 Excitatory interneurons 11.7.1.1 Granule cells 11.7.1.2 Unipolar brush cells (UBCs) 11.7.2 Inhibitory interneurons 11.7.2.1 Granule cell layer interneurons 11.7.2.1.1 Golgi cells 11.7.2.1.2 Lugaro cells 11.7.2.2 Purkinje cell layer interneurons 11.7.2.2.1 Candelabrum cells 11.7.2.3 Molecular layer interneurons 11.7.2.3.1 Basket cells 11.7.2.3.2 Stellate cells Acknowledgment References 12 - Introduction to cognitive development from a neuroscience perspective 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Frameworks and methods 12.2.1 Conceptual frameworks 12.2.2 Eye-tracking 12.2.3 Electrophysiology 12.2.4 MRI and other imaging methods 12.2.5 Summary 12.3 Overview References 13 - Theories in developmental cognitive neuroscience 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Why do we need theories? 13.3 Frameworks for understanding human functional brain development 13.3.1 Maturational viewpoint 13.3.2 Interactive specialization 13.3.3 Skill learning 13.4 Assumptions underlying the three frameworks 13.4.1 Deterministic vs. probabilistic epigenesis 13.4.2 Static vs. dynamic mapping 13.4.3 Plasticity 13.5 Predictions and evidence 13.6 Functional brain imaging 13.7 Critical or sensitive periods 13.8 Atypical development: from genetics to behavior in developmental cognitive neuroscience 13.9 Interactive specialization: future challenges 13.10 Summary, conclusions, and recommendations Acknowledgments References 14 - Structural brain development: birth through adolescence 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Postmortem studies and histology 14.2.1 Synaptogenesis and pruning 14.2.2 Myelination 14.2.3 Sex-specific differences 14.2.4 Summary 14.3 Magnetic resonance imaging volume analyses 14.3.1 Gray matter decreases in development 14.3.2 Regional and temporal dynamics 14.3.3 White matter increases in development 14.3.4 Sex differences 14.4 Magnetic resonance imaging brain mapping approaches 14.4.1 Voxel-based strategies 14.4.2 Cortical thickness 14.4.3 White matter 14.4.4 Sex differences 14.4.5 Summary 14.5 Diffusion magnetic resonance imaging 14.5.1 Diffusion tensor imaging theory 14.5.2 Diffusion parameters in development 14.5.3 Fiber tractography 14.5.4 Sex differences 14.5.5 Advanced diffusion magnetic resonance imaging techniques 14.5.6 Summary 14.6 Connecting different techniques 14.6.1 Multimodal imaging 14.6.2 Brain-behavior relationships 14.7 Conclusions and future directions References 15 - Statistical learning mechanisms in infancy 15.1 Learning probability distributions 15.2 Learning co-occurrence statistics 15.2.1 Learning co-occurrence statistics in speech: word segmentation 15.2.2 Do infants learn words from co-occurrence statistics? 15.2.3 Learning co-occurrence statistics in the visual domain 15.2.4 Learning co-occurrence statistics in speech: word segmentation 15.2.5 Learning co-occurrence relations between words and referents: cross-situational learning 15.3 Linking individual differences in statistical learning to language development 15.4 Statistical learning in individuals with language delays and disorders 15.5 Scaling statistical learning to real-world challenges 15.6 Conclusions Acknowledgment References 16 - Development of the visual system 16.1 Classic theoretical accounts 16.1.1 Piagetian theory 16.1.2 Gestalt theory 16.2 Prenatal development of the visual system 16.2.1 Development of structure in the visual system 16.2.2 Prenatal visual function 16.3 Visual perception in the newborn 16.3.1 Visual organization at birth 16.3.2 Visual behaviors at birth 16.3.3 Faces and objects 16.4 Postnatal visual development 16.4.1 Visual physiology 16.4.2 Critical periods 16.4.3 Development of visual attention 16.4.4 Cortical maturation and oculomotor development 16.4.5 Development of visual memory 16.4.6 Development of visual stability 16.4.7 Object perception 16.4.8 Face perception 16.4.9 Critical period for development of holistic perception 16.5 How infants learn about objects 16.5.1 Learning from targeted visual exploration 16.5.2 Learning from associations between visible and occluded objects 16.5.3 Learning from visual-manual exploration 16.5.4 Hormonal and environmental influences on object perception 16.6 Summary and conclusions References 17 - The development of visuospatial processing 17.1 The development of visuospatial processing 17.1.1 Anatomical organizations of the primary visual systems 17.1.2 Ventral stream processes 17.1.2.1 Perception of the global and local levels of visual pattern structure 17.1.2.2 Perception of faces 17.1.2.3 Spatial construction 17.1.3 Dorsal stream processes 17.1.3.1 Spatial localization 17.1.3.2 Spatial attention 17.1.3.3 Mental rotation 17.1.4 Trajectories of dorsal and ventral stream development 17.1.5 Neurodevelopmental disorders of visuospatial processing 17.1.5.1 Perinatal stroke 17.1.5.2 Spina bifida 17.1.5.3 Neurogenetic syndromes 17.1.5.3.1 Williams syndrome 17.1.5.3.2 Fragile X syndrome 17.1.5.3.3 Turner syndrome 17.1.6 Summary and conclusions References 18 - Memory development 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Different forms of memory 18.2.1 Short- and long-term memory 18.2.2 Declarative and nondeclarative memory 18.2.3 Declarative or explicit memory 18.2.4 Nondeclarative, procedural, or implicit memory 18.2.5 Relations between different forms of memory 18.3 Developmental changes in declarative memory 18.3.1 Episodic memory 18.3.2 Autobiographical memory 18.4 Mechanisms of developmental change 18.4.1 Neural structures and processes 18.4.2 The neural substrate of declarative memory 18.4.3 Development of the neural substrate supporting declarative memory 18.4.4 Functional consequences of development of the temporal-cortical network 18.4.5 Basic cognitive and mnemonic processes 18.4.6 Encoding 18.4.7 Consolidation and storage 18.4.8 Retrieval 18.4.9 Conclusion References 19 - Early development of speech and language 19.1 Introduction 19.1.1 The nature of language 19.2 Speech perception 19.2.1 Prenatal perception of speech and language 19.2.2 Speech perception in neonates 19.2.3 The development of speech perception in infancy 19.2.4 Audiovisual integration in early speech perception 19.3 Speech production 19.3.1 Speech production in infancy 19.3.2 The relationship between speech and motor development 19.3.3 Phonological development 19.4 Social-cognitive foundations of language 19.4.1 Social engagement 19.4.2 Infant-directed talk 19.4.3 Intentional communication 19.4.4 Pragmatic development 19.5 Lexical development 19.5.1 Stages of lexical development 19.5.2 Developmental processes 19.5.3 Neural bases of word learning 19.6 Syntactic development 19.6.1 Developmental stages in syntactic development 19.6.2 Early sentences 19.6.3 Grammatical morphology 19.6.4 Later grammatical development 19.6.5 Neural bases of grammatical development 19.7 Language disorders 19.7.1 Overview of developmental language disorders 19.7.2 Speech perception 19.7.3 Speech production 19.7.4 Social-cognitive foundations of language 19.7.5 Lexical development 19.7.6 Syntactic development 19.7.7 Neural foundations of language disorders 19.8 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 20 - The neural architecture and developmental course of face processing 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Face processing in adults 20.2.1 How adults process faces 20.2.2 Models of face processing 20.2.3 Neural substrates of face processing 20.2.4 Conclusions 20.3 Face processing in the first year of life 20.3.1 How infants learn to see faces 20.3.2 How infants process facial expressions 20.3.3 Neural substrates of face processing in infants 20.3.4 Neural signatures of face processing in infants 20.3.5 Conclusions 20.4 Face processing in toddlers and preschoolers 20.4.1 How young children process faces 20.4.2 How young children process facial expressions 20.4.3 Functional signatures of face processing in young children 20.4.4 Conclusions 20.5 Face processing in school-age children and adolescents 20.5.1 How children and adolescents process faces 20.5.2 How children and adolescents process facial expressions 20.5.3 Neural substrates of processing in children and adolescents 20.5.4 Conclusions 20.6 Impairments and atypical development of face processing 20.6.1 Prosopagnosia 20.6.2 Congenital cataract 20.6.3 Autism spectrum disorder and Williams syndrome 20.6.3.1 How individuals with autism process faces 20.6.3.2 How individuals with autism spectrum disorder process facial expressions 20.6.3.3 Neural substrates of face processing in autism spectrum disorder 20.6.3.4 Face processing in Williams syndrome 20.7 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 21 - Early signatures of and developmental change in brain regions for theory of mind 21.1 Early sensitivity to mental states: prior neural and behavioral evidence 21.2 Early sensitivity to mental states: neuroimaging studies of young children and infants 21.3 Neural correlates of ongoing theory of mind development in childhood 21.3.1 Response selectivity: fine-tuning preferential responses 21.3.2 Reliable spontaneous (uninstructed) responses to movies 21.3.3 Integration and separation of functional networks 21.4 Future directions: open questions and challenges 21.4.1 Neural correlates of structural changes in theory of mind 21.4.2 Discovering reliable neural markers of individual differences in theory of mind 21.4.3 The role of developmental experience: language 21.4.4 The role of developmental experience: culture 21.4.5 The role of family on ToM: shared environment and shared genes 21.5 Conclusion References 22 - A developmental neuroscience perspective on empathy 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Clearing up definitional issues 22.3 The development of empathy 22.3.1 Affect sharing and physiological synchrony 22.3.2 Emotion recognition 22.3.3 Emotion understanding 22.3.4 Perspective-taking and theory of mind 22.3.4.1 Neurophysiological approaches to understanding cognitive empathy 22.3.5 Emotion regulation 22.3.6 Motivation to care 22.4 Neurodevelopmental changes in empathic responding 22.4.1 Evidence from event-related potential 22.4.2 Evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging 22.5 Maladaptive alterations in developmental trajectories of empathy 22.5.1 Conduct problems 22.5.2 Autism spectrum disorder 22.6 Conclusions List of abbreviations References 23 - Developing attention and self-regulation in infancy and childhood 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Facets of attention 23.2.1 Attention and self-regulation 23.3 Brain networks 23.3.1 Alerting 23.3.2 Orienting 23.3.3 Executive attention 23.4 Development of brain and behavior 23.4.1 Infancy 23.4.2 Toddlerhood 23.4.3 Childhood 23.5 Individual differences 23.5.1 Temperament 23.5.2 Genes 23.5.3 Environment 23.6 Plasticity of attention networks 23.7 Summary and integration Acknowledgments References 24 - The neural correlates of cognitive control and the development of social behavior 24.1 The development of cognitive control and its neural basis 24.1.1 Error monitoring 24.1.2 Control instantiation 24.2 The role of cognitive control in decision-making, motivation, and social behavior 24.2.1 Motivation, decision-making, and cognitive control 24.2.2 Cognitive control and social behavior 24.3 Individual differences in cognitive control 24.3.1 Temperament, cognitive control, and psychopathology 24.3.2 Cross-cultural differences in the development of cognitive control 24.4 Chapter summary and future directions References 25 - Executive function: development, individual differences and clinical insights 25.1 Introduction 25.1.1 Normative developmental trajectories for executive function from infancy to adolescence 25.2 Clinical insights, from infancy to adolescence 25.3 From biological to environmental predictors of individual differences in executive function 25.3.1 Early executive function predicts academic, socio-cognitive and social success at school 25.4 Conclusions References 26 - The effects of stress on early brain and behavioral development 26.1 Introduction 26.2 The anatomy and physiology of stress 26.3 Prenatal stress and neurobehavioral development 26.3.1 Fetal programming 26.3.2 Stress regulation and pregnancy 26.3.2.1 Changes in the maternal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical and placental axes over the course of pregnancy 26.3.2.2 Fetal adrenal development 26.3.2.3 Fetal brain development and susceptibility to stress and stress hormones 26.3.3 Gestational stress influences the human fetus 26.3.4 Prenatal maternal psychosocial stress and infant and child development 26.3.4.1 Socioemotional development 26.3.4.2 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis functioning 26.3.4.3 Cognitive development 26.3.5 Prenatal maternal biological stress signals and infant and child development 26.3.5.1 Social/emotional development 26.3.5.2 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis functioning 26.3.5.3 Cognitive development 26.3.6 Sex differences 26.3.7 Epigenetics 26.3.8 Interactions with the postnatal environment 26.3.9 Is this fetal programming? 26.3.9.1 Summary 26.4 Postnatal stress and neurobehavioral development 26.4.1 Social regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis and the role of caregivers 26.4.2 Early adversity 26.4.2.1 Diurnal cortisol following postnatal stress 26.4.2.2 Effects of early care on cortisol set points and reactivity 26.4.3 Individual differences in sensitivity to experience 26.4.4 Summary 26.5 Future directions References 27 - Sex differences in brain and behavioral development 27.1 Introduction 27.1.1 Issues in studying sex differences 27.1.2 Interpreting sex differences 27.2 Psychological sex differences: nature and development 27.2.1 Cognitive skills 27.2.1.1 Spatial skills 27.2.1.2 Mathematical skills 27.2.1.3 Verbal skills 27.2.1.4 Memory 27.2.1.5 Perceptual speed 27.2.2 Noncognitive sex differences 27.2.2.1 Gender identity 27.2.2.2 Sexual orientation 27.2.2.3 Physical and motor skills 27.2.2.4 Activity interests 27.2.2.5 Temperament and personality 27.2.2.6 Social behaviors 27.2.2.7 Psychological disorders 27.3 Explanations for psychological sex differences 27.3.1 Socialization perspectives 27.3.1.1 Socialization of cognitive sex differences 27.3.1.2 Socialization of noncognitive sex differences 27.3.2 Genetic perspectives 27.3.3 Hormone perspectives 27.3.3.1 Evidence for hormone influences on nonhuman sex-typed behavior 27.3.3.2 Early hormone influences on human behavior 27.3.3.2.1 Early hormone influences on human behavior: cognitive sex differences 27.3.3.2.2 Early hormone influences on human behavior: noncognitive sex differences 27.3.3.3 Adolescent hormone influences on human behavior 27.3.3.4 Circulating hormone influences on human behavior 27.3.3.5 Exogenous hormone influences on human behavior 27.3.4 Integrated perspectives 27.4 Brain sex differences: nature, development, and consequences 27.4.1 Issues in studying the brain 27.4.2 Sex differences in brain structure and their development 27.4.2.1 Brain volume 27.4.2.2 Regional structure volume 27.4.2.2.1 Sex differences in interhemispheric commissures 27.4.2.2.2 Sex differences in structures involved in learning and memory 27.4.2.2.3 Sex differences in subcortical structures involved in affective behaviors and sensory processing 27.4.2.3 Gray matter 27.4.2.4 White matter 27.4.2.5 Implications of sex differences in brain structure 27.4.3 Sex differences in brain function (activation) 27.4.3.1 Lateralization 27.4.3.2 Spatial skills 27.4.3.3 Language 27.4.3.4 Emotion-related processing 27.4.3.5 Functional connectivity 27.4.3.6 Development of sex differences in brain function 27.4.3.7 Implications of sex differences in brain function 27.5 Explanations for brain sex differences 27.5.1 Socialization perspectives 27.5.2 Genetic perspectives 27.5.3 Hormone perspectives 27.5.3.1 Prenatal hormone influences on brain sex differences 27.5.3.2 Adolescent hormone influences on brain sex differences 27.5.3.3 Circulating hormone influences on brain sex differences 27.5.3.4 Exogenous hormone influences on brain sex differences 27.6 Conclusions and future directions Acknowledgments References Index A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Z Neural Circuit and Cognitive Development, Second Edition, the latest release in the Comprehensive Developmental Neuroscience series, provides a much-needed update to underscore the latest research in this rapidly evolving field, with new section editors discussing the technological advances that are enabling the pursuit of new research on brain development. This volume is devoted mainly to anatomical and functional development of neural circuits and neural systems and cognitive development. Understanding the critical role these changes play in neurodevelopment provides the ability to explore and elucidate the underlying causes of neurodevelopmental disorders and their effect on cognition. This series is designed to fill the knowledge gap, offering the most thorough coverage of this field on the market today and addressing all aspects of how the nervous system and its components develop. Features leading experts in various subfields as section editors and article authors Presents articles that have been peer reviewed to ensure accuracy, thoroughness and scholarship Includes coverage of mechanisms that control the assembly of neural circuits in specific regions of the nervous system and multiple aspects of cognitive development