Nanotechnology for the Regeneration of Hard and Soft Tissues (259 Pages)

Nanotechnology is an emerging and exciting area in the field of implants. Numerous promising developments have been elucidated regarding the use of nanotechnology to regenerate tissues. This important book highlights the potential of nanophase materials to improve hard and soft tissue applications. In all cases, increased tissue regeneration has been observed for bone, cartilage, vascular, bladder, and central/peripheral nervous system tissues. Contents 12 Preface 8 List of Contributors 20 Chapter 1 Bioinspired Nanocomposites for Orthopedic Applications Huinan Liu and Thomas J. Webster 24 1. Introduction 24 2. Basic Science of Bone 26 2.1. Bone Is a Nanostructured Composite 27 2.1.1. Organic Phase: Collagen Nanofibers and Noncollagenous Proteins 27 2.1.2. Inorganic Phase: Hydroxyapatite Nanocrystals 29 2.2. Microstructure and Macrostructure of Bone 29 2.3. Mechanical Properties of Bone 30 2.4. Bone Remodeling and Bone Cells 31 2.4.1. Osteoblasts 32 2.4.2. Osteocytes 34 2.4.3. Osteoclasts 34 3. Problems of Current Bone Substitutes 35 3.1. Autografts 35 3.2. Allografts and Xenografts 35 3.3. Metal and Metal Alloys 35 4. Bone Tissue Engineering: Promises and Challenges 36 4.1. Essential Requirements for Bone Scaffolds 38 4.1.1. Biocompatibility 38 4.1.2. Biodegradability 39 4.1.3. Mechanical Properties 39 4.1.4. Surface Properties 39 4.1.5. Osteoinductivity 40 4.1.6. Interconnected Three-Dimensional Structures 40 4.1.7. Feasible Fabrication Techniques and Sterilizability 41 4.2. The Choices of Materials for Bone Scaffolds 41 4.2.1. Biodegradable Polymers 42 4.2.2. Bioactive Ceramics 48 4.2.3. Ceramic/Polymer Biocomposites 49 5. Nanocomposites: Next-Generation Materials in Orthopedics 50 5.1. Rationale and Evidence 50 5.2. Fabrication Techniques of Biocomposite Scaffolds 53 5.2.1. Solvent-Casting/Particulate-Leaching 53 5.2.2. Gas-Foaming/Particulate-Leaching 56 5.2.3. Phase Separation and Emulsion Freeze Drying 59 5.2.4. Fiber Meshes/Fiber Bonding 62 5.2.5. Melt Molding 62 5.2.6. Freeze Drying and Cross-linking 63 5.2.7. Rapid Prototyping Techniques 63 5.3. Future Directions in Orthopedics 66 Bibliography 66 Chapter 2 Nanomaterials for Better Orthopedics Ganesan Balasundaram 76 1. Introduction 76 2. Skeletal Complications: Osteoporosis and Bone Fracture 77 3. Need for Better Implantation Materials for Orthopedic Application 78 3.1. Cell Recognition of Implant Surfaces 80 3.2. Chemistry 82 3.3. Topography 83 4. A New Approach: Nanophase Orthopedic Materials 84 4.1. Benefits of Nanophase Bone Implant Materials 89 4.2. Wettability 90 4.3. Surface Roughness 91 5. Influence of Nanomaterials Functionalized with Cell Adhesive Peptides on Osteoblast Functions 93 6. Future Challenges 95 Bibliography 97 Chapter 3 Anodization: A Promising Nano-modification Technique for Titanium for Orthopedic Applications Chang Yao and Thomas J. Webster 102 1. Introduction 102 2. Anodization of Titanium 104 2.1. Basics of Anodization Process 104 2.2. Influences of Processing Parameters 105 2.3. Creation of Micron-Rough Surface 106 2.4. Creation of Nano-roughness 108 2.5. Control of Chemical Composition 115 3. Structure and Properties of Anodized Oxide Film 117 3.1. Structure 117 3.2. Corrosion Resistance and Adhesive Strength 119 3.3. Biological Properties of Anodized Titanium 120 3.3.1. In vitro Studies 120 3.3.2. Mechanisms of Increased Osteoblast Function 123 3.3.3. In vivo Studies 124 4. Future Directions 128 Acknowledgements 129 Bibliography 129 Chapter 4 Bio-inspired Carbon Nano-structures: Orthopedic Applications Dongwoo Khang 134 1. Fundamentals of Protein Adsorption and Surface Properties 134 1.1. Adhesion Protein 136 1.2. Polar and Apolar Properties of Proteins 136 1.3. Osteoblasts 138 1.4. Carbon Nanotubes and Carbon Nanotube Composites 139 1.5. Cytocompatibility of Carbon Nanotube Composites 141 1.6. Analysis of Nano-surface Roughness 141 1.7. Role of Nano-surface Energy 142 1.8. Detecting Protein Adsorption 143 2. Protein Assisted Osteoblast Adhesion on Nanophase Materials 144 2.1. Osteoblast Functions on Carbon Nanotube Composite Materials 145 2.2. Fibronectin Attached AFM Tip Interactions on Carbon Nanotube Composite Surfaces 147 2.3. Osteoblast Functions on Micro-patterning of Carbon Nanotubes on Bio-polymers 149 3. Conclusions and Summary 153 Bibliography 153 Chapter 5 Applications of Nanotechnology/Nanomaterials in the Nervous System Peishan Liu-Snyder 158 1. Anatomy, Physiology and Molecular Biology of the Nervous System 158 2. Epidemiology, Etiology and Pathophysiologies of Neurological Disorders 164 2.1. Spinal Cord Injury 164 2.2. Alzheimer’s Disease 166 2.3. Multiple Sclerosis 169 3. Current Clinical Therapies and Limitations 170 3.1. Approved Treatments of SCI and Ongoing Human Clinical Trials 171 3.2. Pharmacological Treatments of Alzheimer’s Disease and Ongoing Human Clinical Trials 172 3.3. Pharmacological Treatments of Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and Ongoing Human Clinical Trials 174 4. Application of Nanotechnology on the Development of Novel Drug and Cell Delivery Systems for the Nervous System 176 4.1. Conventional Drug Delivery Systems and Their Limitations 176 4.2. Advances of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery Systems 177 4.3. Nano-based Matrix for Stem Cell Delivery 179 4.4. Medical Imaging with Nanotechnology for Early Detection and Evaluation of Treatment 181 5. Applications of Nanotechnologies in Electronic Tissue Interface Devices 184 5.1. Cochlear Implant (Bionic Ear) 185 5.2. Visual Prosthesis (Bionic Eye) 186 5.3. Computer Brain Interface (BrainGate Technology) 187 5.4. Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) 188 5.5. Memory and Cognitive Functions 189 5.6. Oscillating Field Stimulator (OFS) 189 6. How Can Nanotechnology Improve Performance of Electronic Tissue Interface Devices? 190 7. Future Directions and Considerations 193 Bibliography 194 Chapter 6 Vascular Nano Stents Karen M. Haberstroh 204 1. Physiology of the Vascular System 204 1.1. Structure and Function of the Arterial System 204 1.2. Components of the Artery Wall 205 1.3. Cells of the Vascular System 206 1.3.1. Vascular Endothelial Cells 206 1.3.2. Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells 207 1.3.3. Vascular Fibroblasts 207 1.3.4. Blood Cells 208 2. Atherosclerosis: A Cardiovascular Disease 208 2.1. The Cellular Progression of Atherosclerosis 209 3. Treatments for Vascular Disease 210 3.1. Balloon Angioplasty 211 3.2. Vascular Stents 212 3.2.1. The Use of Nano-structured Biomaterials in Vascular Stent Applications 213 3.2.2. Problems with Current Stent Designs 215 3.2.3. Stent Wear Debris 216 4. Conclusions 219 Bibliography 219 Chapter 7 Nanoparticles: Determining Toxicity Ezharul Hoque Chowdhury and Toshihiro Akaike 224 1. Introduction 224 2. Strategies for Biocompatibility Testing 225 2.1. Cytotoxicity 225 2.2. Sensitization, Irritation and Intracutaneous Reactivity 226 2.3. Acute Systemic Toxicity 226 2.4. Genotoxicity 227 2.5. Implantation 227 2.6. Hemacompatibility 228 2.7. Subchronic and Chronic Toxicity 228 2.8. Carcinogenicity 228 2.9. Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity 229 2.10. Biodegradation 229 2.11. Immune Responses 229 3. Route of Entry and Biokinetics of Nanoparticles 230 3.1. Respiratory Tract 230 3.1.1. Alveolar Macrophage-Mediated Clearance 231 3.1.2. Translocation across Epithelial and Endothelial Cell Layers 231 3.1.3. Neural Uptake and Translocation 232 3.2. Exposure via GI Tract and Skin 233 3.3. Injection Route 233 4. Biological Adverse Effects of Nanoparticles 234 4.1. Pulmonary Effects of Nanoparticles 234 4.1.1. Pulmonary Inflammation 235 4.1.2. Pulmonary Carcinogenicity 236 4.2. Systemic Effects of Nanoparticles 237 4.3. Differences in Toxicity between Nanoparticles of Different Materials 238 4.3.1. Particle Surface Activity 239 4.3.2. Particle Agglomeration/Disagglomeration 239 5. Conclusions 239 Bibliography 240 Chapter 8 Nanoparticles: Effects on Human Health and the Environment Myung-Haing Cho and Jin-Kyu Lee 244 1. Hopes and Concerns about Nanotechnology 244 2. Possible Adverse Health, Environment, and Safety Impacts 247 3. How to Evaluate the Toxicity of Nanoparticles? 249 4. Conclusions 254 Acknowledgements 255 Bibliography 255 Index 258 Contents......Page 12 Preface......Page 8 List of Contributors......Page 20 1. Introduction......Page 24 2. Basic Science of Bone......Page 26 2.1.1. Organic Phase: Collagen Nanofibers and Noncollagenous Proteins......Page 27 2.2. Microstructure and Macrostructure of Bone......Page 29 2.3. Mechanical Properties of Bone......Page 30 2.4. Bone Remodeling and Bone Cells......Page 31 2.4.1. Osteoblasts......Page 32 2.4.3. Osteoclasts......Page 34 3.3. Metal and Metal Alloys......Page 35 4. Bone Tissue Engineering: Promises and Challenges......Page 36 4.1.1. Biocompatibility......Page 38 4.1.4. Surface Properties......Page 39 4.1.6. Interconnected Three-Dimensional Structures......Page 40 4.2. The Choices of Materials for Bone Scaffolds......Page 41 4.2.1. Biodegradable Polymers......Page 42 4.2.2. Bioactive Ceramics......Page 48 4.2.3. Ceramic/Polymer Biocomposites......Page 49 5.1. Rationale and Evidence......Page 50 5.2.1. Solvent-Casting/Particulate-Leaching......Page 53 5.2.2. Gas-Foaming/Particulate-Leaching......Page 56 5.2.3. Phase Separation and Emulsion Freeze Drying......Page 59 5.2.5. Melt Molding......Page 62 5.2.7. Rapid Prototyping Techniques......Page 63 Bibliography......Page 66 1. Introduction......Page 76 2. Skeletal Complications: Osteoporosis and Bone Fracture......Page 77 3. Need for Better Implantation Materials for Orthopedic Application......Page 78 3.1. Cell Recognition of Implant Surfaces......Page 80 3.2. Chemistry......Page 82 3.3. Topography......Page 83 4. A New Approach: Nanophase Orthopedic Materials......Page 84 4.1. Benefits of Nanophase Bone Implant Materials......Page 89 4.2. Wettability......Page 90 4.3. Surface Roughness......Page 91 5. Influence of Nanomaterials Functionalized with Cell Adhesive Peptides on Osteoblast Functions......Page 93 6. Future Challenges......Page 95 Bibliography......Page 97 1. Introduction......Page 102 2.1. Basics of Anodization Process......Page 104 2.2. Influences of Processing Parameters......Page 105 2.3. Creation of Micron-Rough Surface......Page 106 2.4. Creation of Nano-roughness......Page 108 2.5. Control of Chemical Composition......Page 115 3.1. Structure......Page 117 3.2. Corrosion Resistance and Adhesive Strength......Page 119 3.3.1. In vitro Studies......Page 120 3.3.2. Mechanisms of Increased Osteoblast Function......Page 123 3.3.3. In vivo Studies......Page 124 4. Future Directions......Page 128 Bibliography......Page 129 1. Fundamentals of Protein Adsorption and Surface Properties......Page 134 1.2. Polar and Apolar Properties of Proteins......Page 136 1.3. Osteoblasts......Page 138 1.4. Carbon Nanotubes and Carbon Nanotube Composites......Page 139 1.6. Analysis of Nano-surface Roughness......Page 141 1.7. Role of Nano-surface Energy......Page 142 1.8. Detecting Protein Adsorption......Page 143 2. Protein Assisted Osteoblast Adhesion on Nanophase Materials......Page 144 2.1. Osteoblast Functions on Carbon Nanotube Composite Materials......Page 145 2.2. Fibronectin Attached AFM Tip Interactions on Carbon Nanotube Composite Surfaces......Page 147 2.3. Osteoblast Functions on Micro-patterning of Carbon Nanotubes on Bio-polymers......Page 149 Bibliography......Page 153 1. Anatomy, Physiology and Molecular Biology of the Nervous System......Page 158 2.1. Spinal Cord Injury......Page 164 2.2. Alzheimer’s Disease......Page 166 2.3. Multiple Sclerosis......Page 169 3. Current Clinical Therapies and Limitations......Page 170 3.1. Approved Treatments of SCI and Ongoing Human Clinical Trials......Page 171 3.2. Pharmacological Treatments of Alzheimer’s Disease and Ongoing Human Clinical Trials......Page 172 3.3. Pharmacological Treatments of Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and Ongoing Human Clinical Trials......Page 174 4.1. Conventional Drug Delivery Systems and Their Limitations......Page 176 4.2. Advances of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery Systems......Page 177 4.3. Nano-based Matrix for Stem Cell Delivery......Page 179 4.4. Medical Imaging with Nanotechnology for Early Detection and Evaluation of Treatment......Page 181 5. Applications of Nanotechnologies in Electronic Tissue Interface Devices......Page 184 5.1. Cochlear Implant (Bionic Ear)......Page 185 5.2. Visual Prosthesis (Bionic Eye)......Page 186 5.3. Computer Brain Interface (BrainGate Technology)......Page 187 5.4. Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES)......Page 188 5.6. Oscillating Field Stimulator (OFS)......Page 189 6. How Can Nanotechnology Improve Performance of Electronic Tissue Interface Devices?......Page 190 7. Future Directions and Considerations......Page 193 Bibliography......Page 194 1.1. Structure and Function of the Arterial System......Page 204 1.2. Components of the Artery Wall......Page 205 1.3.1. Vascular Endothelial Cells......Page 206 1.3.3. Vascular Fibroblasts......Page 207 2. Atherosclerosis: A Cardiovascular Disease......Page 208 2.1. The Cellular Progression of Atherosclerosis......Page 209 3. Treatments for Vascular Disease......Page 210 3.1. Balloon Angioplasty......Page 211 3.2. Vascular Stents......Page 212 3.2.1. The Use of Nano-structured Biomaterials in Vascular Stent Applications......Page 213 3.2.2. Problems with Current Stent Designs......Page 215 3.2.3. Stent Wear Debris......Page 216 Bibliography......Page 219 1. Introduction......Page 224 2.1. Cytotoxicity......Page 225 2.3. Acute Systemic Toxicity......Page 226 2.5. Implantation......Page 227 2.8. Carcinogenicity......Page 228 2.11. Immune Responses......Page 229 3.1. Respiratory Tract......Page 230 3.1.2. Translocation across Epithelial and Endothelial Cell Layers......Page 231 3.1.3. Neural Uptake and Translocation......Page 232 3.3. Injection Route......Page 233 4.1. Pulmonary Effects of Nanoparticles......Page 234 4.1.1. Pulmonary Inflammation......Page 235 4.1.2. Pulmonary Carcinogenicity......Page 236 4.2. Systemic Effects of Nanoparticles......Page 237 4.3. Differences in Toxicity between Nanoparticles of Different Materials......Page 238 5. Conclusions......Page 239 Bibliography......Page 240 1. Hopes and Concerns about Nanotechnology......Page 244 2. Possible Adverse Health, Environment, and Safety Impacts......Page 247 3. How to Evaluate the Toxicity of Nanoparticles?......Page 249 4. Conclusions......Page 254 Bibliography......Page 255 Index......Page 258 The future growth and development of Asia - the most dynamic economic region in the world today - will have important implications for the rest of the global economy. This book offers a futuristic perspective of a wide array of developmental challenges and opportunities facing Asian economies over the next two decades. The future is approached from several different developmental paradigms including technological change and innovation, regional cooperation within Asia and between Asia and the West, poverty reduction, ethics and corruption, and environmental challenges. Future prospects for the two giant economies of China and India are also explored. By offering a comprehensive look at the medium-term future of Asia from such a wide range of different viewpoints, this fascinating book will interest economists, social scientists, politicians, international investment managers and the general public alike Nanotechnology is an emerging and exciting area in the field of implants. In each case, increased tissue regeneration has been observed for bone, cartilage, vascular, bladder, and central/peripheral nervous system tissues. This book highlights the potential of nanophase materials to improve hard and soft tissue applications