Nanofertilizers for Sustainable Agroecosystems: Recent Advances and Future Trends (Nanotechnology in the Life Sciences)

Large-scale chemical fertilizer application causes irreparable damage to soil structure, mineral cycles, soil microbial flora, plants, and other food chains across ecosystems, culminating in heritable mutations in future generations of consumers. A better way forward is the use of nanofertilizers to focus on macro elements (N, P, K), as switching to nanofertilizers may result in large environmental benefits by replacing the majority of these nutrients. Furthermore, the biosynthesis of nanomaterials using bacteria, algae, yeast, fungus, actinomycetes, and plants has opened up a new avenue of research in the production of inorganic nanoparticles as ecologically friendly fertilizers. Nanofertilizers should also attain increased efficiency because of a several-fold increase in the surface-to-volume ratio of nano-forms of nutrients and their suitability for foliar application, where environmental losses are further reduced. Nanostructured fertilizers can also improve nutrient useefficiency through strategies such as targeted distribution and progressive or controlled-release as they can precisely release their active molecules in response to environmental cues and biological demands. Recent research shows nanofertilizers can increase agricultural productivity by speeding up seed germination, seedling growth, photosynthetic activity, nitrogen metabolism, and carbohydrate and protein synthesis. The potential agricultural benefits of nanofertilizers, their modes of action, and the fate of nanomaterials in soil are all discussed in this book. It also covers nanofertilizer formulation and delivery, applications, uptake, translocation, and their fate in plants, as well as their impact on plant physiology and metabolism. Nutrient nanoformulation is a valuable method that has the potential to alter the agricultural sector and provide solutions to current and future concerns for sustainable and climate-sensitive crops Preface Contents About the Editors Chapter 1: Maximizing Crop Yield with Macro and Micro Nano Enhanced Fertilizers 1 Introduction 2 Synthesis of Nanofertilizers 3 Characterization of Nanofertilizers 3.1 X-Ray Crystallography 3.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 3.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy 3.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy 3.5 Zeta Potential 3.6 Other Methods 4 Types of Nanofertilizers 4.1 Macronutrient-Based Nanofertilizers 4.1.1 Nitrogen Nanofertilizers 4.1.2 Phosphorus Nanofertilizers 4.1.3 Potassium Nanofertilizers 4.1.4 Calcium Nanofertilizers 4.1.5 Magnesium Nanofertilizers 4.1.6 Sulfur Nanofertilizers 4.2 Micronutrient Nanofertilizers 4.2.1 Iron Nanofertilizers 4.2.2 Copper Nanofertilizers 4.2.3 Zinc Nanofertilizers 4.2.4 Manganese Nanofertilizers 4.2.5 Boron Nanofertilizers 4.2.6 Molybdenum Nanofertilizers 4.2.7 Silicon (Si) Nanofertilizers 4.2.8 Nickel Nanofertilizers 4.3 Biofertilizer-Based Nanofertilizers (Nanobiofertilizers) 5 Nanotechnological Applications in Plant Promotions 6 Conclusions References Chapter 2: Fabricated Nanofertilizers: A Clean and Feasible Substitute for Conventional Fertilizers 1 Introduction 2 Application Methods 2.1 The Soil Mode of Application 2.2 Foliar Mode of Application 3 The Role of Nanofertilizers in Crop Enhancement 3.1 Nanofertilizers in Plant Growth and Seed Germination 3.2 Nanofertilizers in Mitigating Stress 3.3 Nanofertilizers in Enhancing Soil Fertility and Yield 4 Types of Nanofertilizers 4.1 Copper Oxide/Copper Nanofertilizers 4.2 Iron Oxide Nanofertilizers 4.3 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles 4.4 Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles 4.5 Selenium Nanoparticles 4.6 Nanosilica 4.7 Silver Nanofertilizers 5 Nanofertilizers vs. Conventional Fertilizers 6 Future Perspectives 7 Conclusions References Chapter 3: Nanofertilizers: Types, Synthesis, Methods, and Mechanisms 1 Introduction 2 Comparative Analysis of Conventional Fertilizers vs. Nanofertilizers 2.1 Composition and Structure 2.2 Nutrient Release and Uptake Efficiency 2.3 Targeted Delivery and Nutrient Availability 2.4 Environmental Impacts 3 Diverse Types of Nanofertilizers: An Overview 3.1 Nanostructured Fertilizers 3.1.1 Nano-Sized Nitrogen Fertilizers 3.1.2 Nanocomposite Phosphorus Fertilizers 3.1.3 Nanocoated Potassium Fertilizers 3.2 Nanoencapsulated Fertilizers 3.2.1 Nanoencapsulated Slow-Release Nitrogen Fertilizers 3.2.2 Nanoencapsulated Micronutrient Fertilizers 3.3 Nanocomposite Fertilizers 3.3.1 Nanoparticle-Enhanced Controlled-Release Fertilizers 3.3.2 Nanoparticle-Blended Organic Fertilizers 3.4 Other Types of Nanofertilizers 3.4.1 Nanosensors for Nutrient Monitoring 3.4.2 Nanoparticles for Seed Coating 3.4.3 Nano-Based Soil Amendments 4 Synthesis Methods of Nanofertilizers 4.1 Classification of Synthesis Methods Based on Raw Materials 4.1.1 The Bottom-Up Approach 4.1.2 The Top-Down Approach 4.2 Classification of Synthesis Methods Based on the Nature of the Driving Forces 4.2.1 Mechanical Methods 4.2.2 Physical Methods 4.2.3 Chemical Methods 4.2.4 Physicochemical Methods 4.2.5 Biological Methods 5 Mode of Application of Nanofertilizers 5.1 Soil Application 5.2 Foliar Spray 5.3 Seed Coating 5.4 Drip Fertigation 5.5 Controlled-Release Systems 5.6 Nano-Hydrogel Application 5.7 Nanocoating on Substrates 5.8 Hydroponic Systems 5.9 Biodegradable Nanoparticles for Root Coating 5.10 Nanoencapsulation 5.11 Nanofertilizer Incorporation in Compost 5.12 Nanofertilizer Application via Biodegradable Mulches 6 The Mechanisms of Action of Nanofertilizers 7 Challenges and Future Prospects 7.1 Challenges 7.2 Future Prospects 8 Conclusions References Chapter 4: The Potential of Nanocomposite Fertilizers for Sustainable Crop Production 1 Introduction 2 Nutritional Nanocomposites 2.1 Plant Growth 2.2 Plant Physiology 2.3 Crop Quantity and Quality 3 Plant Sustainability 4 Conclusion References Chapter 5: Environmentally Benign Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles for Fertilizer Applications in Agriculture 1 Introduction 2 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles 2.1 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches 2.1.1 Top-Down Approach 2.1.2 Bottom-Up Approach 2.2 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Methods 2.2.1 Physical Methods Mechanical Milling Laser Ablation Sputtering 2.2.2 Chemical Methods Sol–Gel Process Electrochemical Precipitation Vapor Deposition 2.2.3 Biological Methods 3 Why Environmentally Benign Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles (NPs) Is Necessary 3.1 Green Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles 3.2 Microbial Synthesis of Metal NPs 3.2.1 Bacteria-Mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles 3.2.2 Fungi-Mediated Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles 3.2.3 Algae-Mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles 3.3 Plant-Mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles 4 Characterization of Metal Nanoparticles 4.1 Structural Characterization 4.2 Morphological Characterization 5 Use of Metallic Nanoparticles in Sustainable Agriculture 5.1 Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) 5.2 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) 5.3 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) 5.4 Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (Fe2O3 NPs) 5.5 Copper Nanoparticles (CuNPs) 5.6 Selenium Nanoparticles (SeNPs) 6 Other Uses 6.1 Nanopesticides 6.2 Nanosensors 7 Conclusions References Chapter 6: Plant Nanonutrients for Sustainable Agriculture 1 Introduction 2 Nanonutrients 2.1 Nano-nacronutrients 2.2 Nano-micronutrients 2.3 Uptake of Nanonutrients by Plants 3 Application Strategies 3.1 Seed Priming 3.2 Foliar Application 3.3 Soil-Based Application 4 Effects on Plants 4.1 Copper (Cu) Nanoparticles 4.2 Iron (Fe) Nanoparticles 4.3 Magnesium (Mg) Nanoparticles 4.4 Calcium (Ca) Nanoparticles 4.5 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Nanoparticles 4.6 Sulfur (S) Nanoparticles 4.7 Silicon (Si) Nanoparticles 4.8 Selenium (Se) Nanoparticles 4.9 Manganese (Mn) Nanoparticles 4.10 Molybdenum (Mo) Nanoparticles 5 Ecotoxicological Entanglement 6 Conclusions and Future Trends References Chapter 7: Synthesis, Characterization, and Uses of Nanofertilizers and Nano-Agrochemicals for Sustainable Agriculture 1 Introduction 1.1 Advantages of Nanofertilizers 2 Preparation of Nanofertilizers 3 Characterization of Nanofertilizers 4 Nutrient Release Characterization and Stimulus Responses 5 Plant Behavior with Nanofertilizer Applications 6 Nanotechnology for Phytopathogen Control 7 Short- and Long-Term Effects on the Environment 8 Conclusions References Chapter 8: Green Synthesis of Nanofertilizers and Their Application for Crop Production 1 Introduction 2 Causes and Consequences of Nutrient Deficiency 3 Nanofertilizers Versus Conventional Chemical Fertilizers 4 Plant-Based Green NPs Biosynthesis 4.1 Extracts from Fruit Waste and Vegetable Waste 4.2 Extracts from Spent Fruit and Vegetable Peels 4.3 Extractions from Spent Cereal 5 Role of Different Green NPs in Agriculture Sectors 5.1 Silver NPs 5.2 Copper NPs 5.3 Zinc NPs 5.4 Iron Oxide NPs 5.5 Silicon NPs 6 Methodology for Application of Nanofertilizers 6.1 Uptake of NPs from Soil via Roots System 6.2 Uptake of NPs from Foliar via Stomatal System 7 Plant–NP Interaction 8 Techniques for Assessing Nanoparticle Distribution and Distribution Quantification 9 Constructing Nanoscale Fertilizers 10 Function of Nanofertilizers 10.1 Crop Growth and Development 10.2 NP-Based Improvement of Crop Plant Physiology 10.3 Impact on Yield Quantity and Quality of Crop 11 Nanotechnology in Agriculture: Benefits and Risks 12 Natural Farming and Green Nanotechnology 13 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Nanobiofertilizers: Applications, Crop Productivity, and Sustainable Agriculture 1 Introduction 2 Objectives 3 Encapsulation in Nanoparticles 3.1 Nanoemulsions 3.2 Nanolipid Carriers 4 Formulation of Nanobiofertilizer 4.1 Bioformulations 4.1.1 Solid Formulations Granules Wettable Powders Dust 4.1.2 Liquid Formulations Suspension Concentrates Oil-Miscible Flowable Concentrate Ultralow Volume Suspension Oil Dispersion 4.2 Formulations for Nutrient Uptake 4.3 Formulations for Biocontrol 4.4 Consortia-Based Inoculants 5 Synthesis of Nanoparticles 5.1 Physical Synthesis or Top-Down Synthesis 5.1.1 Thermal Decomposition Method 5.1.2 Ball-Milling Method 5.1.3 Lithography 5.1.4 Laser Ablation 5.1.5 Sputtering 5.2 Bottom-Up Method 5.2.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Method 5.2.2 Sol-Gel Method 5.2.3 Spinning 5.2.4 Pyrolysis 6 Characterization of Nanoparticles 7 Types of Nanobiofertilizer 8 Advantage Over Conventional Methods 9 Conclusion References Chapter 10: ZnO Nanoparticles: Sustainable Plant Production 1 Introduction 2 Importance of ZnO Nanoparticles 3 Preparation of ZnO NPs 4 Nanofertilization 5 Use of ZnO NPs in Sustainable Plant Production 6 Future Trends 7 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Chitosan-Based Nanofertilizer: Types, Formulations, and Plant Promotion Mechanism 1 Introduction 2 Chitosan 2.1 An Overview: Sources, Structure, and Medicinal Properties 2.2 Role of Chitosan in Agriculture 3 Chitosan as a Nanofertilizer 3.1 Chitosan as a Nanofertilizer: Properties and Function 3.2 Water Retention and Salinity Moderation Capacity of Chitosan 3.3 Chitosan Combats Temperature and Heavy Metal Stress 4 Types of Chitosan-Based Nanofertilizers and Applications 4.1 Chitosan–NPK Nanofertilizer 4.2 Chitosan–Zinc Nanofertilizer 4.3 Chitosan–Urea Nanofertilizer 4.4 Chitosan–Copper Nanofertilizer 4.5 Chitosan–Silicon Nanofertilizer 4.6 Chitosan-Copper-Salicylic Nanofertilizer 5 Methods of Formulation 5.1 Precipitation 5.2 Sieving Method 5.3 Reverse Micelles 5.4 Spray Drying 5.5 Ionotropic Gelation 5.6 Emulsion Cross Linking 6 Emulsion-Droplet Coalescence 7 Controlled Release of Active Ingredients from Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials 7.1 Diffusion-Controlled Release 7.2 Swelling-Controlled Release 7.3 Erosion and Degradation-Controlled Release 7.4 Oral Drug Delivery 7.5 Nasal Drug Delivery 7.6 Injection Drug Delivery 8 Mechanisms of Action 8.1 Plant Innate Immunity Booster 8.2 Plant Growth Enhancer 9 Future Directions and Challenges 10 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Selenium Nanomaterials: Contribution Toward Crop Development 1 Introduction 2 Synthesis of Selenium Nanofertilizer 2.1 Synthesis of SeNPs 2.2 Synthesis of SeNP Nanocomposites 2.3 Characterization of Selenium Nanomaterials 3 Selenium Utilization in Plants 4 Benefits of Selenium Nanomaterials (NMs) on Plants 4.1 Biofortification 4.2 Alleviation of Abiotic Stress 4.3 Alleviation of Biotic Stress 5 Conclusions References Chapter 13: Smart Fertilizers: The Prospect of Slow Release Nanofertilizers in Modern Agricultural Practices 1 Introduction 2 Nanofertilizer Application—Present Status 2.1 Macronutrient Nanofertilizers 2.2 Micronutrient Nanofertilizers 2.3 Nano-Biofertilizers 3 Scope of Nanofertilizers in the Improvement of Plant Growth and Development 4 Slow-Release Nanofertilizers 4.1 Synthesis of Slow-Release Fertilizers 4.1.1 Nanoprecipitation 4.1.2 Emulsion Evaporation 4.1.3 Ionotropic Gelation 4.2 Delivery, Uptake, Translocation, and Biodistribution of Slow-Release Nanofertilizers 5 Recent Status of Different Slow-Release Nanofertilizers 6 Limitations and Concerns in the Commercialization of Slow-Release Nanofertilizers 7 Future Perspectives 8 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Effects of Metal Nanoparticles on Plants and Related Microbes in Agroecosystems 1 Introduction 2 Nanofertilizers 3 Impact on Plant 3.1 The Mechanism for Nanoparticle Interaction in Plants 3.2 Improving Postharvest Quality 4 Plant Morphological and Physiological Alterations Due to Nanoparticles Action 4.1 Effect of Nanoparticles on Changes in Plant Morphology 4.2 Effect of Nanoparticles on Changes in Plant Physiology 5 The Biological Processes of Nanofertilizers Work 6 Nanoparticle Uptake and Transport in Plants 7 Effect of Nanoparticles on Plant Toxicity to Cells and Genes 8 Microorganisms and Nanoparticle Interaction 8.1 Interaction of NPs with Bacteria 8.2 Interaction of NPs with Rhizobacteria 8.2.1 Ag NPs-PGPR Interactions 8.2.2 ZnO NPs-PGPR Interactions 8.2.3 TiO2 NPs-PGPR Interactions 8.3 Interaction of Nanoparticles with Soil Fungi 8.4 Molecular Alterations Brought on by Nanoparticle Stress in Soil Fungus and Bacteria 9 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Nanostructure-Based Smart Fertilizers and Their Interaction with Plants 1 Introduction 2 Current Status of the Smart Fertilizers 3 Synthesis of Nanostructured (NS) Fertilizers 3.1 Top-Down Synthesis of NS Fertilizers 3.2 Bottom-Up Synthesis of NS Fertilizers 4 Smart Fertilizers 4.1 Robust-Release Fertilizers 4.2 Controlled-Release Fertilizers 4.2.1 Natural Controlled-Release Fertilizers 4.2.2 Synthetic Controlled-Release Fertilizers Synthetic Polymers Biochar (BC) 4.3 Nanofertilizers 5 Nanostructure-Based Smart Fertilizers 5.1 Polymeric NC-Based Smart Fertilizers 5.2 CB-NC-Based Smart Fertilizers 5.3 Metal-NP-Based Smart Fertilizers 5.4 Hybrid NC-Based Smart Fertilizers 6 Advantages of Smart Fertilizers in Crop Production 7 Interaction of Smart Fertilizers 7.1 Interaction with Soil 7.2 Interaction with Plants 8 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Impact of Nanofertilizers for the Mitigation of Multiple Environmental Stresses 1 Introduction 2 Nanofertilizer Uptake and Movement in Plants 2.1 Foliar Application Pathways for Uptake Nanofertilizer 2.2 Soil Application Pathways for Uptake Nanofertilizer 3 Factors Affected Uptake of Nanofertilizer 3.1 Size of Nanofertilizer 3.2 Surface Charge of Nanofertilizer 3.3 Crop Species 4 Comparing Nanofertilizers to Traditional Fertilizers 5 Synthesis of Nanofertilizers 6 Nanoparticle-Mediated Mechanism of Action in Plants to Mitigate Abiotic Stresses 7 Application of Nanofertilizers for Mitigation of Abiotic Stresses 7.1 Drought Stress 7.2 Salinity Stress 7.3 Temperature Stress 7.4 Heavy Metal Toxicity 8 Toxicity Concern of Nanofertilizers 9 Conclusion References Chapter 17: Nanofertilizers: A Promising Approach to Boost Plant Health and Yield 1 Introduction 2 Comparison of Biofertilizers, Chemical Fertilizers, and Nanofertilizers 3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nanofertilizers 4 Synthesis of Nonfertilizer 4.1 Physical Synthesis of Nanofertilizers 4.2 Chemical Synthesis 4.3 Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles 5 Types of Nanofertilizers 5.1 Macro Nanofertilizers 5.1.1 Phosphorus Nanofertilizer (P-NF) 5.1.2 Potassium Nanofertilizer (K-NF) 5.1.3 Calcium Nanofertilizer (Ca-NF) 5.1.4 Magnesium Nanofertilizer (Mg-NF) 5.2 Micro Nanofertilizers 5.2.1 Iron (Fe) Nanofertilizer (Fe-NF) 5.2.2 Manganese NFs (Mn-NF) 5.2.3 Cupper NFs (Cu-NF) 6 Nanobiofertilizers 7 Effects of Nano-/biofertilizers 7.1 Nanotechnology on Plant Growth and Productivity 7.2 Nanotechnology in Promoting Crop Yield 7.3 Nanotechnology in Soil and Set Treatment 7.4 On Biomass 8 Abiotic Stress Tolerance 8.1 Drought 8.2 Salinity 8.3 Temperature 9 Nanofertilizer in Crop Protection 9.1 Crop Protection 9.2 Pest Management 9.3 Nanobiosensor, Ensuring Crop Safety 9.4 Nanotechnology in Seed Priming 9.5 Nanotechnology in Postharvest Loss Reduction 10 Safety and Regulatory Aspects Nanofertilizer for Agricultural Sustainability 10.1 Soil Becoming Sink 10.2 Uptake and Accumulation Inside Plant Tissue 10.3 Regulatory Affairs of Nanoproducts for Commercialization 10.4 Toxicity Concerns of Nanofertilizers (Environmental and Health Impacts of Nanotechnology in Agriculture) 11 Public Awareness and Acceptance (People’s Perceptions, Awareness, Ethical, and Market Concerns 11.1 Limitation of Nanofertilizers 12 Conclusion References Chapter 18: Complex Study of Foliar Application of Inorganic Nanofertilizers in Field Conditions: Impact on Crop Production and Environmental–Ecological Assessment 1 Introduction 2 A Current Overview of Commercially Available Nanofertilizers 2.1 Agronomical Classification Systems for Nanofertilizers 2.2 Commercially Available Nanofertilizers and Their Behavior in Dispersion Systems 2.3 Agronomical Progressive Nanofertilizes and Perspectives of Their Future Development 3 Effect of Foliar Application of Selected Inorganic Nanofertilizers on Crops Under Field Conditions 3.1 Evaluation of Quantitative, Qualitative, and Physiological Indicators of Crop in the Application of Inorganic Nanoparticles 3.2 Influence of Nanofertilizers on the Quantitative Parameters of Crops 3.3 Effect of Inorganic Nanoparticles on the Quality of Final Agricultural Products 3.4 Effect of Inorganic Nanoparticles to Crop Physiology 4 Assessment of Eco-Environmental Hazards with the Application of Inorganic Nanoparticles 4.1 Impact of Inorganic Nanoparticles on the Reproductive Organs of Plants 4.1.1 Impact of Inorganic Nanoparticles to Flowering Phase and Flowers 4.1.2 Impact of Inorganic Nanoparticles Against Pollen and Pollinators 4.2 Application of Inorganic Nanoparticles as Insecticides and the Impact on Agrobiological Diversity 5 Conclusion and Future Perspective References Chapter 19: Nanofertilizers: Challenges and Future Trends 1 Introduction 2 Challenges 2.1 Production Costs 2.2 Release and Uptake 2.3 Stability 2.4 Sensing and Feedback 2.5 Large-Scale Production 2.6 Regulatory Approval 2.7 Adoption by Farmers 2.8 Safety and Toxicity 2.9 Compatibility with Existing Infrastructure 2.10 Long-Term Effects on Soil Health 3 Future Outlook 3.1 Increased Variety of Nanostructures 3.2 Use of Multifunctional Nanostructures 3.3 Targeted Nutrient Delivery 3.4 Sensing and Feedback Mechanisms 3.5 Biodegradability 3.6 Improvements in Cost and Scalability 3.7 Smart Agriculture 3.8 Biotic Stress 3.9 Soil Health 4 Conclusion References Index