Nanobiosensors for Agricultural, Medical and Environmental Applications

This informative book compiles the most up-to-date applications of nanobiosensors in fields ranging from agriculture to medicine. The introductory section describes different types of nanobiosensors and use of nanobiosensors towards a sustainable environment. The applications are divided into four broad sections for easy reading and understanding. The book discusses how manipulation, control and integration of atoms and molecules are used to form materials, structures, devices and systems in nano-scale. Chapters in the book shed light on the use of nanosensors in diagnostics and medical devices. Application in food processing as well as in cell signaling is also described. Nanobiosensors have immense use, and this book captures the most important ones. Preface Contents Editors and Contributors 1: Opportunities for Real-Time Monitoring of Biomolecules Using FRET-Based Nanosensors 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Fluorescent Proteins and FRET Phenomenon 1.3 Strategies for Developing Genetically Encoded FRET-Based Nanosensors 1.4 Role of FRET-Based Nanosensors in Biological Pathways 1.4.1 Cell Signaling/Signal Transduction Pathways 1.4.1.1 Beta-O-N-Acetyl-d-Glucosamine (O-GlcNAc) 1.4.1.2 Cyclic AMP (cAMP) 1.4.1.3 Tyrosine Kinase 1.4.1.4 Nitric Oxide (NO) 1.4.2 Genetic/Gene Regulation Pathways 1.4.2.1 Proteases (Caspase-3) 1.4.2.2 Rho GTPase 1.4.2.3 Histone H4 Hyperacetylation 1.4.2.4 Cyclin B1-cdk1 1.4.2.5 Estrogen Receptor 1.4.3 Metabolic Pathways 1.4.3.1 Transport and Flow Heme Ions Sugars Amino Acids 1.4.3.2 Energy ATP/ADP Ratio Voltage 1.5 Limitations of Fluorescent Proteins and Possible FRET Challenges 1.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 2: Current Status of Nanosensors in Biological Sciences 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Types of Nanosensors 2.2.1 Magnetic Nanosensors 2.2.1.1 Magnetic Relaxation Switch Assay Sensors 2.2.1.2 Magnetic Particle Relaxation-Based Sensors 2.2.1.3 Magnetoresistive Sensors 2.2.2 Chemical Nanosensor 2.2.3 Nanobiosensors 2.2.3.1 Application of FRET-Based Nanobiosensors FRET-Based Nanosensor for Studying Abiotic Stresses Abscisic Acid Glycine Betaine FRET-Based Nanosensor in Cell Signaing Calcium Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate Protein Kinase A Activity Tyrosine Phosphorylation FRET-Based Nanosensor in Therapeutics Glucose Vitamin B12 BCR-ABL Kinase Lactate FRET-Based Nanosensor in Industries Methionine Leucine Glutamate Lysine 2.2.4 Mechanical Sensors 2.2.5 Optical Sensors 2.2.5.1 Fiber-Optic Nanosensor 2.2.5.2 PEBBLEs 2.2.5.3 Quantum Dots 2.2.6 Thermal Sensors 2.2.6.1 Thermal Sensor for a Biological System 2.3 Conclusion References 3: Biosensor: An Approach Towards a Sustainable Environment 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Classification of Biosensor 3.2.1 Biological Element 3.2.1.1 Enzyme-Based Biosensor 3.2.1.2 Antibody-Based Biosensor 3.2.1.3 Aptamer Based Biosensor 3.2.2 Transducer 3.2.2.1 Electrochemical 3.2.2.2 Amperometric 3.2.2.3 Potentiometric 3.2.2.4 Optical 3.2.2.5 Piezoelectric 3.2.2.6 Electrical Conductometric Colorimetric 3.3 Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring 3.3.1 Toxin 3.3.1.1 Recombinant Fragments of Antibody 3.3.1.2 DNAzymes 3.3.1.3 MIPs 3.3.2 Pesticides 3.3.3 Pathogen 3.3.3.1 Antimicrobial Peptides 3.3.3.2 Sugars/Lectins 3.3.4 Heavy Metals 3.3.4.1 Protein-Based Biosensor 3.3.4.2 Antibody-Based Biosensor 3.3.4.3 Genetically Engineered Microorganism (GEM)-Based Biosensors 3.3.5 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 3.4 Biosensors and Bioelectronics on a Smartphone 3.4.1 Microscopic Bioimaging on a Smartphone 3.5 Future Perspective 3.6 Conclusion References 4: Nanobiosensor in Health Sector: The Milestones Achieved and Future Prospects 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Nanobiosensor and Their Properties: Fusion of Nanotechnology with Biosensor 4.2.1 Nanomaterials Used in Biosensing Devices 4.2.1.1 Metallic Nanoparticles 4.2.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 4.2.1.3 Graphene 4.2.1.4 Quantum Dots (QDs) 4.2.1.5 Nanowires and Nanorods 4.3 Types of Nanobiosensor 4.3.1 Classification Based on Bioreceptor 4.3.1.1 Enzymatic Biosensor 4.3.1.2 Oligonucleotide (DNA/RNA) Biosensor 4.3.1.3 Immunosensor 4.3.1.4 Aptamer Biosensor 4.3.1.5 Microbial Biosensor 4.3.2 Classification on the Basis of Transducer 4.3.2.1 Electrochemical 4.3.2.2 Optical 4.3.2.3 Piezoelectric 4.4 Applications of Nanobiosensor 4.4.1 Detection of Glucose/Other Metals 4.4.2 Detection of Biomolecular Interaction 4.4.3 Pathogenic Bacteria Detection 4.4.4 Application in Cancer Biology 4.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects References 5: Nanosensors Based on DNA as an Emerging Technology for the Detection of Disease 5.1 Introduction 5.2 DNA-Based Nanobiosensor 5.3 Types of Nanobiosensors 5.3.1 Nanostructured Materials 5.3.2 Nanoparticles 5.3.3 Nanowire/Nanotube 5.3.4 Nanoprobe 5.4 Detection of Various Diseases 5.4.1 Diseases Caused by Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV) 5.4.2 Tuberculosis 5.4.3 Hepatitis 5.4.4 Genetic Diseases 5.4.5 Cancer 5.4.6 Infectious Diseases 5.5 Conclusions/Outlook References 6: Genetically Encoded Nanobiosensors for Nutrients and Their Applications 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Genetically Encoded Biosensors and Types (Fig. 6.1) 6.2.1 Fluorescence-Based Biosensors 6.2.2 Imaging of Ions and Metabolites in Intact Tissue and Organs 6.3 Sensors for Nutrients 6.3.1 Inorganic Phosphate 6.3.2 Zinc 6.3.3 Glutamate 6.4 Biological Discoveries Made with Biosensors 6.4.1 Calcium Imaging in Guard Cells 6.4.2 Visualization of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and Redox Changes 6.4.3 Hormones 6.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective 6.6 Summary References 7: Development of Highly Sensitive Optical Sensors Based on Carbon Nanotube (CNTs) 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Carbon Nanotubes Properties for Photodetection 7.1.2 Figures of Merit for Photo Detectors 7.1.3 Carbon Nanotubes Based Optical Detectors 7.2 Conclusion References 8: Recent Advances of Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer-Based Nanosensors for the Detection of Human Ailments 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Nanosensor as a Sensing Tool 8.2.1 Fluorescent Proteins (FPs) 8.2.2 Forster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) 8.2.3 Ligand-Binding Protein 8.3 Noninvasive Tool for Detection of Various Metabolites Which Are Related to Human Health 8.3.1 FRET-Based Sensor for the Detection of Cancer 8.3.1.1 Dyes Based Sensor for the Detection of Cancer Cationic Conjugated Polymer (CCP) Based FRET Technique 8.3.1.2 Genetically Encoded FP-Based Sensors for the Detection of Cancer FRET-Based Sensor for BCR-ABL Kinase Activity Lactate Sensor 8.3.2 FRET-Based Sensor for Neurotransmitters 8.3.3 FRET-Based Sensor for Diabetes 8.3.3.1 Glucose Sensor 8.3.3.2 Concanavalin A (ConA) 8.3.4 FRET-Based Probes for Detection of Alzheimer 8.3.5 FRET-Based Sensor for Nitric Oxide [NO] 8.3.6 FRET-Based Sensor for Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis 8.3.7 Probes for the Detection of Superoxide Radicals 8.4 Conclusions References 9: Application of Nanosensors in Agriculture and Food Processing 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Nano- Biosensors and Agriculture 9.1.2 Control of Pests and Disease Occurrences in Plants 9.1.3 Wastewater Treatment and Disinfection by Nanoparticles 9.1.4 Precision Farming 9.1.5 Diagnostic Tool for Soil Quality, Presence of Contaminants, and Other Molecules in Soil 9.1.6 Role of Nanosensors in Bioremediation and Recycling of Agricultural Wastes 9.1.7 Nano Based Products 9.1.7.1 Nano Herbicides 9.1.7.2 Nano Fungicides 9.1.8 Enhancement of Shelf Life of Agroproducts 9.2 Conclusions References 10: Fluorescent Protein Pairs and Their Application in FRET-Based Nanobiosensors 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Measurement of FRET 10.3 Mechanism of Fluorescence 10.4 Types of FP FRET Pairs 10.4.1 CFP-YFP FRET Pairs 10.4.2 GFP-RFP FRET Pairs 10.4.3 FFP-IFP FRET Pairs 10.4.4 LSS FP-Based FRET Pairs 10.4.5 Dark FP-Based FRET Pairs 10.4.6 Optical Highlighter FP-Based FRET Pairs 10.4.7 Multifluorescent FRET Pairs 10.5 FRET Probe Design 10.5.1 Cleavage-Based Approach 10.5.2 Intermolecular FRET Approach 10.5.3 Intramolecular FRET Approach 10.6 Delivery of the FRET Probe Into the Cell 10.7 Applications of FRET-Based Biosensor 10.7.1 Analysis of FRET-Based Biosensor Activity in Live Cells 10.7.1.1 Protein-Protein Interactions 10.7.1.2 Intracellular Entry and Unpacking 10.7.1.3 Molecular Trafficking and Localization 10.7.2 Measurement of Flux 10.8 Conclusion References 11: Probes for Detection of Free Radicles 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Generation of ROS and RNS 11.3 Reactive Species: Good or Bad? 11.4 Detection of ROS ANDRNS 11.5 Probes to Detect ROS and RNS 11.5.1 Fluorescent Probe 11.5.1.1 FRET-Based Sensors of ROS 11.5.1.2 Reversible Probe 11.5.1.3 Enzyme Activated Fluorescent Probes 11.6 Fluorescent Probes Developed So Far 11.6.1 Hydroethidine 11.6.2 2′, 7′Dichlorfluorescein-Diacetate (DCFH-DA) 11.6.3 Scopoletin (7-Hydroxy-6-Methoxy-Coumarin) 11.6.4 N-Acetyl-3, 7-Dihydroxyphenoxazine (Amplex Red) 11.6.5 Homovanillic Acid (4-Hydroxy-3-Methoxy-Phenylacetic Acid; HVA) 11.7 Chemiluminescent Probes 11.7.1 Lucigenin (Bis-N-Methyl Acridinium Nitrate) 11.8 Chemical ROS Reporters 11.8.1 C11-BODIPY581/591 (Lipid Peroxidation Sensor) 11.8.2 HyPer 11.9 Fibre Optics Sensor for ROS 11.10 Electrochemical Sensor for Detection of ROS 11.11 Mitochondrial Targeting Sensors 11.11.1 Triphenylphosphonium-Based Probes 11.11.2 Lipophilic Cationic Compounds 11.11.3 Peptide Delivery Agents 11.12 Conclusion and Future Perspective References