Mycorrhizal Fungi in South America: Biodiversity, Conservation, and Sustainable Food Production (Fungal Biology)

In order to feed the world, global agriculture will have to double food production by 2050. As a result, the use of soils with fertilizers and pesticides in agronomic ecosystems will increase, taking into account the sustainability of these systems and also the provision of food security. Thus, soil ecosystems, their health, and their quality are directly involved in sustainable agronomical practices, and it is important to recognize the important role of soil microbial communities such as mycorrhizal fungi, their biodiversity, interactions, and functioning. Soil ecosystems are under the threat of biodiversity loss due to an increase of cultivated areas and agronomic exploitation intensity. Also, changes in land use alter the structure and function of ecosystems where biodiversity is vital in the ecosystem. Soils are a major aid in food production in all terrestrial ecosystems; however, this means they are also involved in gas emission and global warming.Thus, in agronomic ecosystems, several mitigation practices have been proposed to promote the increase of carbon soil stock, and the reduction of warming gas emission from soils. In South America, most of the rural population depends economically on agriculture and usually works in family units. New, organic, safe, and sustainable agro-forestry practices must be applied to support local communities and countries to achieve hunger eradication, rural poverty reduction, and sustainable development. This book compiles new information for mycorrhizal occurrence in natural and anthropic environments in South America. It includes new reports of mycorrhizal fungi diversity along different mycorrhizal types and their effect on plant communities, plant invasions, the use of mycorrhizal fungi for ecological and sustainable studies, management programs of natural and agroecosystems, and forestry and food-secure production. This book fills the gaps in biodiversity knowledge, management and safe food production of mycorrhizas. It should be a valuable help to researchers, professors and students, to aid in use of mycorrhizal fungi while also focusing on their biodiversity, sustainable safe food production, and conservation perspectives. Contents Chapter 1: Overview of the Biodiversity, Conservation, and Sustainable Food Production with Mycorrhizal Fungi in South America 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Diversity and Food Production 1.2.1 Grasslands 1.2.2 Pasture 1.2.2.1 Intensively Managed Pastures 1.2.2.2 Tropical Pastures 1.2.2.3 Temperate Pastures 1.2.3 Vineyards 1.2.4 Agroforestry and Food Production 1.3 Ectomycorrhizal Fungi Diversity and Food Production 1.3.1 EcMF in Native and Exotic Forest 1.4 Orchid Mycorrhizal Fungi 1.5 Mycorrhizal Fungi and Land Use Change 1.6 Mycorrhizal Fungi in South American Degraded Lands 1.6.1 Potential of Mycorrhizal Fungi for Remediation and Restoration in Degraded Soils 1.6.1.1 Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contamination 1.6.1.2 Heavy Metal (HM) Soil Contamination 1.6.1.3 Mycorrhizal Fungi Applied in Restoration 1.7 Mycorrhizal Fungi Diversity, Ecosystem Services, and Huge Information Gaps in South America 1.8 Conclusions References Chapter 2: Ectomycorrhizal Fungi Invasions in Southern South America 2.1 Belowground Invasions: Concepts and Definitions 2.1.1 Soil Is a Complex Living System 2.1.2 Plants Can Co-invade with Soil Mutualists 2.1.3 Mycorrhizal Fungi Can Be Strong Determinants of Plant Invasions 2.2 Invasive EMF Co-introduced with Invasive Pinaceae Trees 2.2.1 A Myco-centric Invasion Framework to Better Understand EMF Success or Failure in the Non-native Range 2.2.1.1 Non-native EMF That Were Introduced but Never Reported in Pine Plantations 2.2.1.2 Non-native EMF Never Reported Outside Pine Plantations 2.2.1.3 Non-native Invasive EMF Reported Outside Pine Plantations but Always in Mature Pine Invasion 2.2.1.4 Non-native Invasive EMF Reported in Pine Invasion Fronts 2.2.1.5 Non-native Invasive EMF Reported in Native Communities in the Absence of Co-invasive Pine Hosts 2.3 Unboxing the Black Box: What Is the Way Forward? References Chapter 3: Pseudomonotes tropenbosii, an Endemic Dipterocarp Tree from a Neotropical terra-firme Forest in Colombian Amazonia That Hosts Ectomycorrhizal Fungi 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Materials and Methods 3.2.1 Study Site 3.2.2 Sporocarp’s Sampling 3.2.3 Root Samples 3.2.4 Molecular Analyses 3.2.5 Sporocarp’s Identification 3.2.6 Host and Fungal Identification from Root Tips 3.2.7 Diversity Analyses 3.3 Results 3.3.1 Aboveground Diversity 3.3.2 Belowground Diversity 3.3.3 EcM Fungal Composition 3.3.4 Other Taxa Collected Off of the Studied Plots 3.3.5 Host Plant Identification 3.4 Discussion 3.5 Conclusions References Chapter 4: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in the Colombian Amazon: A Historical Review 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 A Historical Approach to Study AMF in the Colombian Amazon Region 4.1.1.1 Morphological Descriptions in the Colombian Amazon 4.1.2 Molecular AMF Descriptions in the Colombian Amazon 4.2 Diversity of AMF of the Colombian Amazon 4.3 Diversity Trends of the AM Fungal Communities Along a Biogeographical Gradient 4.4 Amazon Deforestation and Changes in AM Fungal Communities 4.5 AM Fungal Communities of Two Economically Relevant Euphorbiaceae Native Plants 4.6 Knowledge Gaps and Further Recommendations 4.7 Conclusions References Chapter 5: AMF Diversity in Coffee and Cacao Agroforestry Systems: Importance for Crop Productivity and Forest Conservation 5.1 Introduction 5.2 AMF Diversity Associated with Coffee and Cacao 5.3 Effect of the Agricultural Management on AMF Communities 5.3.1 Shade Cover 5.3.2 Agrochemical Use 5.4 Importance of AMF Diversity in the Growth and Productivity of Coffee and Cacao Crops 5.4.1 Growth and Plant Nutrition 5.4.2 Resistance to Biotic and Abiotic Stress 5.5 Conclusions References Untitled Chapter 6: Potential of Arbuscular Mycorrhizas for the Remediation of Soils Impacted with Pollutants 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Materials and Methods 6.2.1 Plant Selection: Sampling 6.2.2 Determination of Saturated, Aromatic Compounds, Resins, and Asphaltenes (SARA) and Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (% TPH) 6.2.3 Isolation and Quantification of Spores of Glomeromycota Fungi 6.2.4 Quantification of Mycorrhizal Root Length (% LRM) in Roots of A. setifolia 6.2.5 Extraction, Staining, and Quantification of Glomeromycota Fungi Mycelium 6.2.6 Determination of Total Glomalin-Related Soil Proteins (T-GRSP) 6.2.7 Determination of Easily Extractable Glomalin-Related Soil Proteins (EE-GRSP) 6.2.8 Quantification of GRSP Present in Sodium Citrate Extracts: Bradford Method 6.2.9 Statistical Analysis 6.3 Results 6.3.1 Soil Description 6.3.2 Hydrocarbon Analysis Description 6.3.3 Glomeromycota Spore Number 6.3.4 Mycelium Length of Glomeromycota Fungi in the Rhizospheric Soil of A. setifolia 6.3.5 Percentage of Mycorrhizal Root Length (% MRL) of A. setifolia 6.3.6 Quantification of T-GRSP and EE-GRSP in Rhizospheric Soil of A. setifolia 6.4 Conclusions References Chapter 7: Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in the Ecuadorian Amazon Region 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Methods 7.2.1 Study Site Description 7.2.2 Mycorrhizal Type and Plant Status 7.2.3 Mycorrhizal Literature Selection Process 7.3 Results 7.4 Discussion 7.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspective 7.6 Appendix A References Chapter 8: Orchid Mycorrhizas in South America: Tropical and Subtropical Ecosystems 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Studies on Orchid Mycorrhizae in South America 8.3 Research Interests 8.4 Challenges and Perspectives References Chapter 9: Symbiotic Propagation of South American Orchids 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Orchids in South America 9.3 Orchid Symbiosis From a Conservationist Perspective 9.4 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Agroecosystems of East-Central Argentina: Two Agricultural Practices Effects on Taxonomic Groups 10.1 Introduction 10.2 General Characteristics of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Taxonomic Groups 10.3 AMF Communities Under Different Agricultural Practices 10.3.1 AMF Morphospecies in Both No-Till Agricultural Practices 10.3.2 AMF Families and Taxonomic Groups Change with Agricultural Practices 10.4 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Metal Soil Contamination, Metallophytes, and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi From South America 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Heavy Metal Soil Contamination, Metallophyte/Hyperaccumulator Plants and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi 11.3 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Symbiosis with Metallophytes in Contaminated Soil From Chile and Central Argentina 11.3.1 Chile 11.3.2 Central Argentina 11.4 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Native and Exotic Woodland from Patagonian Andes: Anthropic Impacts and Mycorrhizas 12.1 Introduction 12.1.1 Mycorrhizas in Patagonian Woodlands 12.1.2 Anthropic Impacts on Forests 12.2 Arson Forest Fire and Mycorrhizas 12.3 Tree Species Introduction and Mycorrhizas 12.3.1 Mycorrhizal Maladaptation 12.3.2 Switching Host 12.4 Introduced Plant Pathogens and Mycorrhizas 12.5 Fertilization, Nutrition and Mycorrhizas 12.6 Mycorrhizal Inoculations 12.7 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Current Knowledge on Mycorrhizal Symbiosis and Endophytes in Northwest Patagonia, Argentina 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Northwest Patagonian Region 13.1.2 Microorganisms Associated with Plant-Soil Systems 13.2 High-Andean Ecosystems: Andean Subregion 13.2.1 Mycorrhiza and DSE Status 13.2.2 Mycorrhiza in Plant Species Growing in High-Andean Environments and in the Patagonian Steppe: Andean and Extra-Andean Subregions 13.3 Patagonian Andean Forests: Andean Subregion 13.3.1 Mycorrhiza and Dominant Tree Species 13.3.2 Mycorrhiza and DSE of Understory Vegetation 13.4 Ericoid Mycorrhiza and Related Root Endophytes Along the Andean Subregion: Study of High-Andean and Andean Forests and a Comparison Between Their Native Plant Species Versus Exotic Plant Species from Productive Farm 13.5 Fungi Associated with Ectomycorrhizosphere 13.6 Mycorrhiza and DSE in the Steppe: Extra-Andean Subregion 13.6.1 Mycorrhizal Status 13.6.2 Mycorrhizal Behavior of Plants in Patagonian Steppe (Sensu Stricto) and Meadow Zones and Comparisons with Andean Forests 13.7 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Mycorrhizas in Nothofagus From South America: What Do We Know From Nursery and Field Experiences? 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Mycorrhizas in Nursery-Cultivated Nothofagus 14.2.1 Domestication of Nothofagus Species 14.2.2 Description of Plant Traits and Ecosystem Processes 14.3 Mycorrhizas in Nothofagus From Natural and Managed Ecosystems 14.3.1 Types of Mycorrhizas in Nothofagus 14.3.2 Natural and Anthropogenic Factors Influencing Nothofagus Ectomycorrhizas 14.3.3 Ectomycorrhizal Fungal Diversity in Native Nothofagus Forests 14.4 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in the Espinal Ecoregion, Gaps, and Opportunities 15.1 Forest and Espinal Ecoregion 15.2 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi 15.3 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Diversity in the Espinal Ecoregion 15.4 Conclusions and Final Comments References Chapter 16: Edible Ectomycorrhizal Mushrooms in South America 16.1 Outline 16.2 Edible Ectomycorrhizal Mushrooms in Native Forests 16.3 Edible Ectomycorrhizal Mushrooms Associated to Exotic Timber Plantations 16.4 Putatively Mycorrhizal Edible Fungi: Morchella 16.5 Management and Culture of Native and Introduced Edible Ectomycorrhizal Fungi 16.5.1 Consumption and Trade Levels 16.5.2 Mycosilviculture 16.5.3 Truffle Culture in South America 16.6 Mycogastronomy and Cultural Importance 16.7 Nutritional Chemistry and Biological Activity 16.8 Outlook: Global Change and Conservation Strategies References Electronic Resources Chapter 17: Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis in Temperate Grassland Forage Species of Argentina 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Natural Habitat 17.3 Grazing, Fertilization, and Plant-Plant Interactions 17.4 Conclusion References Chapter 18: Current Trends and Challenges in Viticulture Using Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Mycorrhizal Symbiosis: Role in Agricultural Management Systems 18.3 Current Trends and Projection in Viticulture Using AMF 18.4 General Statements References Chapter 19: Communities of Glomeromycota in the Argentine Arid Diagonal: An Approach from Their Ecological Role in Grassland Management and Use 19.1 Introduction 19.1.1 The Argentine Arid Diagonal: Climatic Features, Phytogeography and Glomeromycota Community Importance 19.1.2 Use and Management of Natural Grassland in AAD 19.2 Ecological Role of Glomeromycota Communities 19.3 Glomeromycota Communities in AAD Natural Grasslands 19.4 AMF Colonization: Effect of Management and Ecophysiological Characteristics of Plant Species in Semiarid Grasslands 19.5 Conclusion References Chapter 20: The Current Scenario of the Distribution, Functionality, and Ecosystemic Role of the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis in Chile 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Systematization of Studies Regarding the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Chile 20.2.1 Far North Zone 20.2.1.1 Studies on Plant Growth and Nutrition 20.2.1.2 Studies on the Role of AMF in Salinity Tolerance 20.2.1.3 AMF in Natural Ecosystems 20.2.2 Near North Zone 20.2.2.1 Presence of AMF in Natural Ecosystems 20.2.2.2 Role of AMF as Phytostabilizers 20.2.3 Central Zone 20.2.3.1 AMF in Plant Growth and Nutrition 20.2.3.2 Factors Affecting AM Symbiosis in Agroecosystems 20.2.3.3 AMF in Copper-Contaminated Environments 20.2.3.4 Factors Affecting AM Symbiosis in Natural Ecosystems 20.2.3.5 Role of AMF in Natural and Modified Ecosystems 20.2.4 South Zone 20.2.4.1 Plant Growth and Nutrition 20.2.4.2 Protective Role of AMF Against Phytotoxicity 20.2.4.3 Factors Affecting AMF in Agroecosystems 20.2.4.4 Presence and Role of AMF in Natural Ecosystems 20.2.4.5 Far South Zone 20.3 Information Gaps Regarding Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis in Chile 20.3.1 Far North Zone 20.3.2 Near North Zone 20.3.3 Central Chile 20.3.4 South Zone 20.3.5 Far South Zone 20.4 Projections and Study Needs Regarding to the AM Symbioses at the National Level 20.5 Conclusion References Chapter 21: Mycorrhizas and Ecological Restoration in South America 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Ecological Restoration and Mycorrhiza: A General View 21.3 Ecological Restoration and Mycorrhizas: State of the Art in South America 21.4 Study Cases for South America 21.4.1 Role of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza in the Ecological Restoration of Venezuelan Degraded Ecosystems 21.4.2 Effects of Individual and Consortia of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Species in the Quality Index of the Endangered Conifer from Chile (Araucaria araucana) 21.5 Ectomycorrhizas and Ecological Restoration with a Focus in the Neotropical Region 21.6 Conclusion References Chapter 22: Gaps in South American Mycorrhizal Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function Research 22.1 Introduction: Soil Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functions 22.1.1 Mycorrhizal Biodiversity: Functions, Types, and Their Relationship 22.2 Meta-Analyses of Mycorrhizal Biodiversity and Functioning in South America 22.2.1 Literature Search and Coordinates Extraction 22.2.2 Spatial Data Processing and Analyses 22.3 Main Trends of South American Mycorrhizal Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functions Research 22.4 Conclusion and Further Directions References Index