Mycoremediation and Environmental Sustainability: Volume 2 (Fungal Biology)

Bioremediation is the use of microorganisms' metabolism to degrade waste contaminants (sewage, domestic, and industrial effluents) into non-toxic or less toxic materials by natural biological processes. Volume 2 offers new discussion of remediation through fungi―or mycoremediation―and its multifarious possibilities in applied remediation engineering and the future of environmental sustainability. Fungi have the biochemical and ecological capability to degrade environmental organic chemicals and to decrease the risk associated with metals, semi-metals, noble metals, and radionuclides, either by chemical modification or by manipulating chemical bioavailability. Additional expanded texts shows the capability of these fungi to form extended mycelia networks, the low specificity of their catabolic enzymes, and their use against pollutants as a growth substrate, making these fungi well suited for bioremediation processes. Their mycelia exhibit the robustness of adapting to highly limiting environmental conditions often experienced in the presence of persistent pollutants, which makes them more useful compared to other microbes. Despite dominating the living biomass in soil and being abundant in aquatic ecosystems, however, fungi have not been exploited for the bioremediation of such environments until this added Volume 2. This book covers the various types of fungi and associated fungal processes used to clean up waste and wastewaters in contaminated environments and discusses future potential applications. Foreword Preface Contents Chapter 1: Bioremediation Applications with Fungi 1.1 Introduction: Role of Fungal Enzymes in Bioremediation 1.2 Detection of Fungus in Purification Technology 1.2.1 Immunological Assays 1.2.2 Molecular Assays 1.3 Fungal Polymers 1.4 Fungal Enzymes and Application Areas 1.4.1 Phenol Oxidase Group Enzymes 1.4.2 Peroxidase Group Enzymes 1.5 Bioremediation of Olive Oil Mill Wastewater and Molasses Wastewaters by White Rot Fungi 1.5.1 Composition of Olive Oil Mill Wastewater 1.5.2 Bioremediation of Olive Oil Mill Wastewater by White Rot Fungi 1.5.3 Bioremediation of Olive Oil Mill Wastewater by Laccase 1.5.4 Valorization of Olive Oil Mill Wastewater (OOMW) by White Rot Fungi 1.6 Composition of Molasses Wastewaters 1.6.1 Biodegradation of Molasses Wastewaters and Melanoidins by White Rot Fungi 1.6.2 Valorization of Molasses Wastewaters 1.7 Nanotechnological Approaches to Bioremediation 1.8 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Role of Phytochelatins (PCs), Metallothioneins (MTs), and Heavy Metal ATPase (HMA) Genes in Heavy Metal Tolerance 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Phytoremediation Techniques: An Overview 2.3 Hyperaccumulator Plants: A Base for Phytoremediation Technology 2.4 Heavy Metal Toxicity Mechanism 2.5 Heavy Metal Transportation Pathway 2.6 Types of Genes Used in Phytoremediation 2.6.1 Phytochelatins (PCs) 2.6.1.1 Biosynthesis of Phytochelatins (PCs) 2.6.1.2 Phytochelatins Action Mechanism 2.6.2 Metallothioneins (MTs) 2.6.3 Classification of Metallothioneins (MTs) 2.6.3.1 Metallothioneins Action Mechanism 2.6.4 Heavy Metal ATPase Genes (HMA2, HMA3, and HMA4) 2.7 Advancements of Phytoremediation 2.8 Demerits of Phytoremediation 2.9 Future Prospects 2.10 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Production of Bio-oils from Microbial Biomasses 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Biochemistry and Physiology of Lipid Biosynthesis 3.2.1 Biosynthesis of Cytoplasmic Acetyl CoA 3.2.2 Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids 3.2.3 Biosynthesis of TAG 3.2.4 Physiological and Environmental Factors Affecting the Lipid Accumulation 3.2.4.1 Temperature, Oxygen Availability, pH 3.2.4.2 Growth Medium Composition 3.2.4.3 Lipid Turnover 3.3 Metabolic Engineering Strategies for SCO Production 3.4 Industrial Applications 3.4.1 Nutrition and Nutraceuticals 3.4.1.1 PUFA 3.4.1.2 Cocoa Butter Substitutes (CBS) 3.4.2 Biodiesel 3.5 SCO Extraction and Refining References Chapter 4: Mycoremediation of Agricultural Soil: Bioprospection for Sustainable Development 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Concepts of Bioremediation 4.2.1 In Situ Bioremediation Approaches 4.2.1.1 Bioventing 4.2.1.2 Biosparging/Air Sparging 4.2.1.3 Bioaugmentation 4.2.2 Ex Situ Bioremediation Approaches 4.2.2.1 Slurry Phase Bioremediation 4.2.2.2 Solid Phase Bioremediation 4.2.2.3 Land Farming 4.2.2.4 Compositing 4.2.2.5 Bio-piling 4.3 Groups of Fungi Involved in Bioremediation 4.3.1 Wood-Rotting Fungi 4.3.1.1 White-Rot Fungi 4.3.1.2 Brown-Rot Fungi 4.3.2 Leaf-Decomposing Fungi 4.3.3 Soil Fungi 4.3.4 Mycorrhizal Fungi 4.3.5 Endophytic Fungi 4.3.6 Aquatic Fungi 4.4 Mechanisms of Mycoremediation 4.4.1 Immobilization 4.4.2 Mobilization 4.4.3 Biosorption 4.4.4 Biotransformation 4.4.4.1 Bioprecipitation 4.4.4.2 Biological Oxidation/Reduction 4.5 Application of Mycoremediation 4.5.1 Mycoremediation of Soil 4.5.1.1 Biodegradation of Pesticide Residue 4.5.1.2 Bioremediation of Heavy Metals 4.5.1.3 Degradation of Xenobiotics 4.5.2 Mycofiltration of Water 4.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 5: Bioremediation and Decolorization of Textile Dyes by White Rot Fungi and Laccase Enzymes 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Textile Dyes 5.3 White Rot Fungi 5.4 Dye Decolorization by White Rot Fungi 5.4.1 Dye Decolorization in Liquid Media by Growing Cells of White Rot Fungi 5.4.2 Dye Decolorization in Liquid Media by Immobilized White Rot Fungi 5.4.3 Dye Decolorization in Liquid Media by White Rot Fungal Pellets (Whole Cells) 5.4.4 Dye Decolorization by Semisolid-State and Solid-State Fermentation 5.5 Dye Decolorization by Laccase Enzymes 5.5.1 Laccases 5.5.2 Dye Decolorization by Crude, Purified, and Immobilized Laccases 5.6 Future Prospects References Chapter 6: Mycoremediation of Common Agricultural Pesticides 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Bioremediation 6.2.1 Phytoremediation 6.2.2 Microbial Remediation 6.2.3 Mycoremediation 6.3 Insecticide Degradation 6.3.1 Heptachlor 6.3.2 Endosulfan (6,7,8,9,10,10-hexachloro- 1,5,5a,6,9,9ahexahydro-6,9- 6.3.3 DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) 6.3.4 Malathion 6.3.5 Parathion 6.4 Herbicide Degradation 6.4.1 2, 4-D (2, 4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid) 6.4.2 Diuron [N-(3, 4-dichlorophenyl)-N, N-dimethylurea] 6.4.3 Atrazine (2-Chloro-4-ethylamino-6- isopropylamino-S-triazine) 6.5 Fungicide Degradation 6.5.1 Vinclozolin 6.5.2 Chloroneb (1,4-dichloro-2,5-dimethoxybenzene) 6.5.3 Metalaxyl [Methyl N-(2, 6-dimethylphenyl)-N-(methoxyacetyl)-D, L-alaninate] 6.6 Conclusion 6.7 Future Prospects References Chapter 7: Bioremediation of Insecticides by White-­Rot Fungi and Its Environmental Relevance 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Biodegradation Potential of White-Rot Fungi (WRF) 7.3 Fungal Enzyme Systems for Degradation of Insecticides 7.3.1 Peroxidases 7.3.2 Laccase 7.3.3 Catalase 7.3.4 Cytochrome P450 Enzyme Systems 7.4 Pathways of Degradation in White-Rot Fungi 7.5 Degradation of Insecticides 7.5.1 Degradation of Organophosphate 7.5.2 Degradation of Organochlorines 7.6 Conclusion References Chapter 8: An Overview of Fungal Applications in the Valorization of Lignocellulosic Agricultural By-Products: The Case of Two-Phase Olive Mill Wastes 8.1 Introduction: Lignocellulose 8.2 Lignocellulosic Agricultural By-Products 8.3 “Alpeorujo” Dry Olive Residue (DOR) 8.4 Valorization of Olive Mill Wastes 8.5 Fungi in the Degradation of Lignocellulose 8.5.1 Wood-Decay Fungi 8.5.2 Enzymatic Mechanisms for the Degradation of Lignocellulose 8.6 Valorization of Dry Olive Waste for the Recovery of Enzymes of Biotechnological Interest 8.7 Valorization of Dry Olive Mill Waste as Soil Organic Amendment Using Fungi 8.8 Future Prospects References Chapter 9: Fungal Conversion and Valorization of Winery Wastes 9.1 Introduction: The Vine and Wine Sector 9.2 Vineyard and Winery By-Products 9.2.1 Winery Wastewater 9.2.2 Grape Leaves 9.2.3 Grape Stalks 9.2.4 Grape Pomace 9.2.5 Wine Lees and Vinasses 9.2.6 Vineyard Pruning 9.3 Bio-recycling of Winery Wastes 9.3.1 Fungal Bioremediation of Winery Wastewater 9.4 Fungal Fermentation of Solid Residues 9.4.1 Production of Food and Animal Feed 9.4.2 Production of Enzymes or Other Value-Added Compounds 9.5 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Biosorption of Dye and Heavy Metal Pollutants by Fungal Biomass: A Sustainable Approach 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Dyes and Heavy Metals 10.2.1 Anionic Dyes 10.2.2 Cationic Dyes 10.2.3 Heavy Metals 10.3 Traditional Methods 10.3.1 Adsorption 10.3.2 Membrane Processes 10.3.3 Oxidative Processes 10.3.4 Coagulation-Flocculation and Precipitation 10.3.5 Electrocoagulation 10.3.6 Ionic Exchange 10.4 Advantage Over Traditional Method 10.5 Fungal Biosorbent 10.6 Biosorption Mechanism 10.6.1 Molecules Translocation Through Cell Membrane 10.6.2 Chemisorption/Electrostatic Interaction 10.6.3 Ion Exchange 10.6.4 Precipitation 10.7 Factors Affecting Biosorption Mechanism 10.7.1 pH 10.7.2 Initial Concentration of Dye/Heavy Metal 10.7.3 Metal Speciation 10.7.4 Temperature 10.7.5 Contact Time 10.7.6 Biomass Dosage 10.8 Biosorption Isotherms Models 10.8.1 Langmuir Equilibrium Model 10.8.2 Freundlich Equilibrium Model 10.8.3 Temkin Equilibrium Model 10.8.4 Dubinin-Radushkevich Equilibrium Model 10.9 Desorption and Reuse 10.10 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Application of Myconanotechnology in the Sustainable Management of Crop Production System 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles by Microfungi 11.2.1 Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles (NPs) by Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Verticillium 11.2.2 Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles by Other Microfungi 11.3 Synthesis of Nanoparticles by Macrofungi 11.4 Application of Myconanoparticles in Agriculture 11.4.1 Plant Germination and Growth 11.4.2 Plant Disease Management and Protection 11.4.3 Improving Plant Resistance 11.4.4 Nanopesticides 11.4.5 Plant Pathogen Detection and Study of Plant Disease Mechanisms 11.4.6 Soil Stabilization and Remediation 11.4.7 Pesticide Residue Detection 11.4.8 Pesticide Degradation 11.4.9 Field Sensing Systems to Monitor the Environmental Stresses and Crop Condition 11.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References Chapter 12: Obligate Marine Fungi and Bioremediation 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Lignocellulolytic Enzymes and Bioremediation 12.3 Dye Decolorization 12.4 Hydrocarbon Degradation 12.5 Factors for Bioremediation 12.6 Future Prospects References Chapter 13: Fungal-Derived Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites: A Sustainable Approach for Heavy Metal Biosorption and Environmental Management 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Heavy Metal Decontamination and Related Side Effects 13.3 Biosorption Process 13.3.1 Bacteria as Biosorbent 13.3.2 Algae as Biosorbent 13.3.3 Yeasts as Biosorbent 13.3.4 Fungi as Biosorbent 13.4 Use of Chitosan in Biosorption Process 13.5 Use of Chitosan-Based Composites as Biosorbents 13.6 Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites in Biosorption of Heavy Metals 13.7 Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites in Biosorption of Dyes 13.8 Future Perspectives 13.9 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Mycoremediation Mechanisms for Heavy Metal Resistance/Tolerance in Plants 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Heavy Metal Toxicity 14.2.1 Arsenic 14.2.2 Lead 14.2.3 Cadmium 14.2.4 Chromium 14.2.5 Nickel 14.3 Heavy Metal Toxicity and Detoxification Mechanisms in Plants 14.3.1 Toxicity 14.3.2 Detoxification of Mechanism 14.3.2.1 Phytochelatins 14.3.2.2 Glutathione 14.3.2.3 Metallothioneins 14.4 Role of Fungi in Remediation of Heavy Metal Contamination 14.4.1 Mode of Detoxification in Fungi 14.4.2 Environmental Factors Affecting Detoxification 14.5 Plant: Microbe Coexistence as a Boon for Heavy Metal Stress Amelioration 14.6 Fungal Mechanisms in Reducing Heavy Metal Toxicity in Plants 14.6.1 Mobilization 14.6.2 Immobilization 14.6.3 Biotransformation 14.7 Gene Modulation During Fungal Plant Interaction in Heavy Metal Stress 14.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective References Index Bioremediation is the use of microorganisms' metabolism to degrade waste contaminants (sewage, domestic, and industrial effluents) into non-toxic or less toxic materials by natural biological processes. Remediation through fungi--or mycoremediation--has multifarious possibilities in applied remediation engineering and the future of environmental sustainability. Fungi have the biochemical and ecological capability to degrade environmental organic chemicals and to decrease the risk associated with metals, semi-metals, noble metals, and radionuclides, either by chemical modification or by manipulating chemical bioavailability. Additionally, the capability of these fungi to form extended mycelia networks, the low specificity of their catabolic enzymes, and their using pollutants as a growth substrate make these fungi well suited for bioremediation processes. Their mycelia exhibit the robustness of adapting to highly limiting environmental conditions often experienced in the presence of persistent pollutants, which makes them more useful compared to other microbes. However, despite dominating the living biomass in soil and being abundant in aquatic ecosystems, fungi have not been exploited for the bioremediation of such environments. This book covers the various types of fungi and associated fungal processes used to clean up waste and wastewaters in contaminated environments and discusses future potential applications