Mycoagroecology: Integrating Fungi into Agroecosystems (Mycology)

During the 20th century, agriculture underwent many unsustainable changes for the sake of greater food production. Today, the effects of climate change are becoming ever more apparent and the global population continues to grow, placing additional pressures on agricultural systems. For this reason, it is vital to turn international agriculture towards a sustainable future capable of providing healthy, bountiful foods by using methods that preserve and reconstruct the balance of natural ecosystems. Fungi are an underappreciated, underutilized group of organisms with massive potential to aid in the production of healthy food and other products while also increasing the sustainability of agricultural systems. Mycoagroecology: Integrating Fungi into Agroecosystems lays the foundations for integrated fungal-agricultural understanding and management, the proposed practice of “mycoagroecology”. Suitable for students and professionals of multiple disciplines, this text includes nine introductory chapters that create a firm foundation in ecosystem functioning, evolution and population dynamics, fungal biology, principles of crop breeding and pest management, basic economics of agriculture, and the history of agricultural development during the 20th century. The latter half of the text is application-oriented, integrating the knowledge from the introductory chapters to help readers understand more deeply the various roles of fungi in natural and agricultural systems: PARTNERS: This text explores known benefits of wild plant-fungal mutualisms, and how to foster and maintain these relationships in a productive agricultural setting. PESTS AND PEST CONTROL AGENTS: This text acknowledges the historical and continuing role of agriculturally significant fungal pathogens, surveying modern chemical, biotechnological, and cultural methods of controlling them and other pests. However, this book also emphasizes the strong potential of beneficial fungi to biologically control fungal, insect, and other pests. PRODUCTS: This text covers not just isolated production of mushrooms on specialized farms but also the potential for co-cropping mushrooms in existing plant-based farms, making farm systems more self-sustaining while adding valuable and nutritious new products. An extensive chapter is also devoted to the many historical and forward-facing uses of fungi in food preservation and processing. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Preface Acknowledgments from Elizabeth “Izzie” Gall Editors Contributors Chapter 1 Nutrient Cycling and Trophic Lifestyles 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Photosynthesis: Primary Calorie Production 1.3 Primary and Secondary Metabolites 1.4 The Carbon Cycle 1.5 The Nitrogen Cycle 1.6 Heterotroph Lifestyles 1.6.1 Ingestive Heterotrophs 1.6.2 Absorptive Heterotrophs 1.7 Agroecological Applications References Chapter 2 Evolution and Symbiosis 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Fitness and Genes 2.3 Species 2.4 Evolution and Evolutionary Pressures 2.5 Coevolution and Symbiosis 2.5.1 Mutualism 2.5.2 Predators and Prey 2.5.3 Competition 2.5.4 Commensalism and Parasitism 2.6 Context Dependence of Symbiosis 2.7 Agroecological Applications References Chapter 3 Population Dynamics 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 3.3 Growth Curves 3.4 Carrying Capacity and Population Cycles 3.5 Agroecological Applications References Chapter 4 The Kingdom Fungi 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Basic Structures of Fungi 4.3 Basic Classification of Fungi and Fungus-Like Organisms 4.3.1 Slime Molds 4.4 Taxonomy of Macrofungi 4.5 Taxonomy of Microfungi 4.6 Sexual Reproduction 4.6.1 Basidiomycetes 4.6.2 Ascomycetes 4.7 Asexual and Sexual Stages 4.8 Fundamental Niches of Fungi 4.8.1 Saprotrophic Fungi 4.8.2 Fungi in Symbioses 4.9 Secondary Metabolites of Interest 4.9.1 Culinary Use. 4.9.2 Poisons or Toxins 4.9.3 Medicinal Compounds References Chapter 5 Limiting Factors in Agriculture 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Meteorological Limiting Factors 5.2.1 Extreme Temperature as a Limiting Factor 5.2.2 CO[sub(2)] Concentration as a Limiting Factor 5.3 Where Meteorological and Land Factors Meet: Water as a Limiting Factor 5.4 Limiting Land Factors: Nutrient Supply 5.4.1 Nitrogen (N) 5.4.2 Phosphorus (P) 5.4.3 Potassium (K) References Chapter 6 Principles of Crop Breeding and Productivity 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Artificial Evolutionary Pressure 6.3 Metabolite Limits of Selective Breeding 6.4 Photosynthetic Limits of Selective Breeding 6.5 Evolved Alternatives to C3 Photosynthesis 6.5.1 C4 Photosynthesis 6.5.2 CAM Photosynthesis 6.5.3 Evolutionary Limits 6.6 Other Methods to Increase Yields and Efficiency 6.6.1 Intercropping 6.6.2 Crop Rotation 6.6.3 Directed Genetic Modification 6.7 Developing Cooperative Varieties of Plants and Fungi References Chapter 7 Pests and Pest Management Methods 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Humans Versus Pests 7.3 Pest Management Strategies and Tactics 7.4 Economics and Ecology of Pests 7.4.1 The Economic Approach 7.4.2 The Ecological Approach 7.5 The Future of Pest Management 7.5.1 Biologically Intensive IPM 7.5.2 Agroecologically Integrated Pest Management 7.5.3 Ecologically Based Pest Management (EBPM) 7.5.4 Total System Approach 7.5.5 Integrated Management of Biodiversity (IMB) 7.5.6 Integrated Crop Management (ICM) 7.5.7 Integrated Production 7.5.8 Integrated Agroecosystem Design and Management (IADM) 7.5.9 Crop Health and Salutogenesis 7.5.10 Holistic Pest Management (HPM) 7.6 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 8 Economic Factors in Agriculture 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Supply and Demand 8.2.1 Agricultural Supply: Balancing Inputs and Outputs with Costs and Income 8.2.2 Agricultural Demand: Glut Price Cycles 8.3 Farm Sizes and Types 8.3.1 Farm Consolidation 8.4 Market Distortions 8.4.1 Government Interventions 8.5 Other Factors 8.5.1 Ecological Considerations 8.5.2 Intellectual Property Law 8.6 Conclusion References Chapter 9 The Green Revolution: Agricultural Shifts of the 20th Century 9.1 Introduction 9.2 The United States: From Dust Bowl to Green Revolution 9.3 Mexico and the Initial Green Revolution 9.4 The Philippines, China, and Southeast Asia: Global Attention and Wild Success 9.5 Patterns of the Green Revolution 9.6 Environmental Impacts of High-Input Systems 9.6.1 Fertilizers 9.6.2 Irrigation 9.6.3 Monoculture 9.7 Economic Impact 9.8 Government Interventions 9.9 Conclusion References Chapter 10 The Second Green Revolution and the Role of Mycoagroecology 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Mycology: Revealing the Fungal Roles of Partners, Pests, Pest Control Agents, and Products 10.3 Agroecology: Integrating Productivity and Sustainability 10.3.1 Industrial Farms Value Production over Ecosystem Balance 10.3.2 Buffering the Ecosystem from the Farm 10.3.3 Closing the Loop: The Farm as an Island Ecosystem 10.3.4 The Farm as a Productive Portion of the Ecosystem 10.3.5 Incorporating Other Techniques 10.4 Mycoagroecology 10.4.1 Partners 10.4.2 Pests and PestControl Agents 10.4.3 Products 10.5 Mycoagroecology Is Compatible with the Goals of the Second Green Revolution 10.5.1 Address “Orphan” Regions and Crops 10.5.2 Return to Polyculture 10.5.3 Reduce the Need for Synthetic Inputs 10.5.4 Maintain Smallholder Competitiveness 10.6 Conclusion References Section I: Partners Chapter 11 Plant-Fungal Mutualisms 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Plant-Fungal Mutualisms Vary According to Plant “Compartments” 11.3 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Colonize Diverse Plant Roots Worldwide 11.4 Ectomycorrhizal Fungi Colonize Roots of Woody Plants in Northern and Temperate Forests 11.5 Mycorrhizal Relationships Are Structurally and Ecologically Diverse 11.5.1 Plants in a Community Can Benefit from Shared Mycorrhizal Networks 11.5.2 Mycoheterotrophs Exploit Plant-Fungal Mutualisms 11.6 Endophytic Fungi Are Common Residents of Plant Tissues 11.7 Fungi Can Provide Benefits to Other Plant Mutualisms 11.8 Plant-Fungal Mutualisms Require an Adapted Fungal Community References Chapter 12 Incorporating Microbes into Agricultural Soils 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Types of Soil Microbes 12.2.1 AM Fungi 12.2.2 Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) Fungi 12.2.3 Root Endophytes 12.2.4 Other Soil Microbes 12.3 Industrial Agricultural Practices Destroy Soil Microbial Communities 12.3.1 Monoculture 12.3.2 Other Microbiome-Damaging Practices 12.4 Restoring Microbial Populations Is Possible and Effective 12.5 Methods for Reintroducing Microbes to Agricultural Soils 12.5.1 Soil Inoculation 12.5.2 Trap Plants 12.5.3 Seed Coating 12.5.4 Monospecies vs. Community Inoculation 12.6 Management Practices for Soil Microbe Retention 12.7 Conclusion References Section II: Pests and Pest control Agents Chapter 13 Fungal Diseases in Agriculture: Signicafince, Management, and Control 13.1 Significance of Fungal Diseases in Agriculture 13.2 Management and Control of Fungal Diseases in Agriculture 13.2.1 Chemical Control 13.2.2 Cultural Methods and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 13.2.3 Biological Control Agents (BCAs) References Chapter 14 Fungal Pathogens in Forested Ecosystems 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Detection Tools and Surveillance Methods 14.3 Fusarium Dieback– Invasive Shot Hole Borers 14.3.1 Disease Biology and Impact 14.3.2 Detection and Identification of the Pathogen and Vector 14.4 Laurel Wilt 14.4.1 Disease Biology and Impact 14.4.2 Detection and Identification of the Pathogen and Vector 14.5 Thousand Cankers Disease 14.5.1 Disease Biology and Impact 14.5.2 Detection and Identification of the Pathogen and Vector 14.6 Management of Fungal Diseases in Forested Areas 14.6.1 Cultural Practices 14.6.2 Chemical Management 14.6.3 Biological Control References Chapter 15 Fungal Interactions with Other Pests 15.1 Insects 15.1.1 Fungi Are an Important Food Source for Insects and Their Relatives 15.1.2 Insects Are Important Vectors of Plant Pathogenic Fungi 15.1.3 Fungi Are Important Pathogens of Insects 15.1.4 Fungal-Insect Interactions Are Important Factors in Ecosystem Processes 15.2 Nematodes 15.2.1 Nematodes Consume Fungi, Resulting in Varied Impacts on Agroecosystems 15.2.2 Diverse Fungi Attack and Consume Nematodes 15.2.3 Nematodes and Plant Pathogenic Fungi Can Act Synergistically to Cause Plant Disease 15.2.4 Coevolution of Fungi and Nematodes Has Resulted in Diverse Associations Acknowledgment References Section III: Products Chapter 16 Principles of Modern Fungal Cultivation 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Protein Value of Mushrooms 16.3 Limiting Factors in Mushroom Cultivation 16.3.1 Carbon Dioxide Concentrations 16.3.2 Carbon and Nitrogen 16.3.3 Other Macronutrients 16.3.4 Water 16.3.5 Light 16.3.6 Micronutrients 16.4 Modern Mushroom Cultivation 16.4.1 Starting Substrate 16.4.2 Mushroom Spawn 16.5 Genetic Aspects of Mushroom Cultivation References Chapter 17 Integrating Fungi into Existing Farms 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Mushroom Cultivation Recycles Agro-Industrial Waste 17.3 Abundance of Lignocellulosic Waste 17.4 Selecting Substrates and Fungal Strains 17.5 Mushroom Cultivation Locations 17.5.1 Mushroom Cultivation in Buildings 17.5.2 Mushroom Cultivation in Woods 17.5.3 Mushroom Cultivation in Fields 17.5.4 Co-Cropping with Ectomycorrhizal Fungi 17.6 Other Potential Uses of Mushrooms 17.6.1 Mushroom Growing Kits 17.6.2 Spent Mushroom Substrate 17.6.3 Mycoremediation of Damaged Landscapes 17.6.4 Bioprospecting: “Pests” with Agricultural Utility 17.7 Conclusion References Chapter 18 Fungi in Food Processing 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Fermented and Aged Food Products 18.2.1 Fermented Foods Are Diverse and Numerous 18.2.2 Breads 18.2.3 Fermented Meats 18.2.4 Cheeses 18.2.5 Yogurts and Other Fermented Dairy Products 18.3 Fermented Beverages 18.3.1 Alcoholic Fruit-Based Beverages (Wines) 18.3.2 Alcoholic Grain-Based Beverages (Beers) 18.3.3 Other Alcoholic Beverages 18.3.4 Non-Alcoholic Fermented Beverages 18.4 Food Additives and Ingredients 18.5 Bioprocessing and Novel Food Production by Fungi References Index "Fungi serve as partners of plants that can bolster disease resistance and improve crop yields while reducing the need for artificial inputs; as pests that can cause significant diseases of major crops; and as valuable products with nutrient content and low input requirements. This new textbook on mycoagroecology introduces basic concepts of ecology, mycology, and systems of agriculture. It combines this information into an understanding of mycoagroecology, highlighting various roles of fungi in agriculture. This textbook is for students in plants sciences and agriculture departments and contains beautiful color illustrations throughout"-- Provided by publisher