My Wife, Another Woman, And Me: The Complete 18 Book Series

Cover 1 Title Page 5 Copyright 6 Dedication 7 Contents 10 About the Author 8 Acknowledgments 18 Preface 17 Part I: Framework of Climate Science 20 Chapter 1 Overview of Climate Science 23 Climate and Climate Change 24 1-1 Geologic Time 24 TOOLS OF CLIMATE SCIENCE: Temperature Scales 25 1-2 How This Book Is Organized 26 Development of Climate Science 27 1-3 How Scientists Study Climate Change 28 Overview of the Climate System 28 1-4 Components of the Climate System 28 1-5 Climate Forcing 30 1-6 Climate Responses 30 1-7 Time Scales of Forcing Versus Response 31 1-8 Differing Response Rates and Climate System Interactions 34 1-9 Feedbacks in the Climate System 35 CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Positive and Negative Feedbacks 36 Chapter 2 Earth’s Climate System Today 39 Heating Earth 40 2-1 Incoming Solar Radiation 40 2-2 Receipt and Storage of Solar Heat 41 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: The Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere 43 CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Albedo/Temperature 46 CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Water in the Climate System 48 2-3 Heat Transformation 49 CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Water Vapor 52 Heat Transfer in Earth’s Atmosphere 52 2-4 Overcoming Stable Layering in the Atmosphere 53 2-5 Tropical-Subtropical Atmospheric Circulation 53 2-6 Atmospheric Circulation at Middle and High Latitudes 56 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: The Coriolis Effect 58 Heat Transfer in Earth’s Oceans 60 2-7 The Surface Ocean 60 2-8 Deep-Ocean Circulation 62 Ice on Earth 65 2-9 Sea Ice 65 2-10 Glacial Ice 65 Earth’s Biosphere 68 2-11 Response of the Biosphere to the Physical Climate System 69 2-12 Effects of the Biosphere on the Climate System 71 CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Vegetation-Climate Feedbacks 72 Chapter 3 Climate Archives, Data, and Models 75 Climate Archives, Dating, and Resolution 76 3-1 Types of Archives 76 3-2 Dating Climate Records 80 3-3 Climatic Resolution 83 Climatic Data 84 3-4 Biotic Data 85 3-5 Geological and Geochemical Data 87 Climate Models 89 3-6 Physical Climate Models 89 3-7 Geochemical Models 94 Part II: Tectonic-Scale Climate Change 98 Chapter 4 CO2 and Long-Term Climate 101 Greenhouse Worlds 102 The Faint Young Sun Paradox 103 Carbon Exchanges between Rocks and the Atmosphere 104 4-1 Volcanic Input of Carbon from Rocks to the Atmosphere 104 4-2 Removal of CO2 from the Atmosphere by Chemical Weathering 106 Climatic Factors That Control Chemical Weathering 108 Is Chemical Weathering Earth’s Thermostat? 109 4-3 Was Methane Part of the Thermostat? 111 Is Life the Ultimate Control on Earth’s Thermostat? 111 4-4 The Gaia Hypothesis 111 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: The Organic Carbon Subcycle 112 Was There a Thermostat Malfunction? A Snowball Earth? 115 Chapter 5 Plate Tectonics and Long-Term Climate 117 Plate Tectonics 118 5-1 Structure and Composition of Tectonic Plates 118 5-2 Evidence of Past Plate Motions 120 The Polar Position Hypothesis 122 5-3 Glaciations and Continental Positions since 500 Myr Ago 122 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Brief Glaciation 445 Myr Ago 125 Modeling Climate on the Supercontinent Pangaea 126 5-4 Input to a Model Simulation of the Climate on Pangaea 126 5-5 Output from the Model Simulation of Climate on Pangaea 127 Tectonic Control of CO2 Input: The BLAG (Spreading Rate) Hypothesis 130 5-6 Control of CO2 Input by Seafloor Spreading 130 5-7 Initial Evaluation of the BLAG (Spreading Rate) Hypothesis 133 Tectonic Control of CO2 Removal: The Uplift Weathering Hypothesis 133 5-8 Rock Exposure and Chemical Weathering 133 5-9 Case Study: The Wind River Basin of Wyoming 134 5-10 Uplift and Chemical Weathering 135 5-11 Case Study: Weathering in the Amazon Basin 137 5-12 Weathering: Both a Climate Forcing and a Feedback? 138 Chapter 6 Greenhouse Climate 141 What Explains the Warmth 100 Million Years Ago? 142 6-1 Model Simulations of the Cretaceous Greenhouse 142 6-2 What Explains the Data-Model Mismatch? 144 6-3 Relevance of Past Greenhouse Climate to the Future 146 Why Were Sea Levels Higher 80 to 100 Million Years Ago? 146 6-4 Changes in the Volume of the Ocean Basins 147 6-5 Climatic Factors 150 6-6 Assessment of Higher Cretaceous Sea Levels 150 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Calculating Changes in Sea Level 151 6-7 Effect of Changes in Sea Level on Climate 152 The Asteroid Impact (65 Million Years Ago) 152 Greenhouse Episode 55 Million Years Ago: Another Thermostat Malfunction? 154 Chapter 7 From Greenhouse to Icehouse: The Last 50 Million Years 157 Global Cooling Since 50 Million Years Ago 158 7-1 Evidence from Ice and Vegetation 158 7-2 Evidence from Oxygen Isotope Measurements 160 7-3 Evidence from Mg/Ca Measurements 161 Do Changes in Geography Explain the Cooling? 162 7-4 Evaluation of the Gateway Hypothesis 162 Hypotheses That Invoke Changes in CO2 165 7-5 Evaluation of the BLAG (Spreading Rate) Hypothesis 166 7-6 Evaluation of the Uplift Weathering Hypothesis 167 CLIMATE DEBATE: The Timing of Uplift in Western North America 170 Future Climate Change at Tectonic Time Scales 172 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Organic Carbon: The Monterey Hypothesis 174 Part III: Orbital-Scale Climate Change 176 Chapter 8 Astronomical Control of Solar Radiation 179 Earth’s Orbit Today 180 8-1 Earth’s Tilted Axis of Rotation and the Seasons 180 8-2 Earth’s Eccentric Orbit: Distance Between Earth and Sun 180 Long-Term Changes in Earth’s Orbit 181 8-3 Changes in Earth’s Axial Tilt Through Time 181 TOOLS OF CLIMATE SCIENCE: Cycles and Modulation 182 8-4 Changes in Earth’s Eccentric Orbit Through Time 183 8-5 Precession of the Solstices and Equinoxes Around Earth’s Orbit 184 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Earth’s Precession as a Sine Wave 187 Changes in Insolation Received on Earth 189 8-6 Insolation Changes by Month and Season 190 8-7 Insolation Changes by Caloric Seasons 192 Searching for Orbital-Scale Changes in Climatic Records 192 8-8 Time Series Analysis 193 8-9 Effects of Undersampling Climate Records 195 8-10 Tectonic-Scale Changes in Earth’s Orbit 195 Chapter 9 Insolation Control of Monsoons 197 Monsoonal Circulations 198 9-1 Orbital-Scale Control of Summer Monsoons 199 Orbital-Scale Changes in North African Summer Monsoons 201 9-2 “Stinky Muds” in the Mediterranean 202 9-3 Freshwater Diatoms in the Tropical Atlantic 204 9-4 Upwelling in the Equatorial Atlantic 205 9-5 The Phasing of Summer Monsoons 206 Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis: Regional Assessment 207 Monsoon Forcing Earlier in Earth’s History 208 9-6 Monsoons on Pangaea 200 Million Years Ago 209 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Insolation-Driven Monsoon Responses: A Chronometer for Tuning 210 9-7 Joint Tectonic and Orbital Control of Monsoons 212 Chapter 10 Insolation Control of Ice Sheets 215 What Controls the Size of Ice Sheets? 216 10-1 Orbital Control of Ice Sheets: The Milankovitch Theory 217 Modeling the Behavior of Ice Sheets 218 10-2 Insolation Control of Ice Sheet Size 218 10-3 Ice Sheets Lag Behind Summer Insolation Forcing 220 10-4 Delayed Bedrock Response Beneath Ice Sheets 221 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Ice Volume Response to Insolation 222 10-5 A Full Cycle of Ice Growth and Decay 223 10-6 Ice Slipping and Calving 224 Northern Hemisphere Ice Sheet History 225 10-7 Ice Sheet History: δ18O Evidence 225 10-8 Confirming Ice Volume Changes: Coral Reefs and Sea Level 227 Is Milankovitch’s Theory the Full Answer? 229 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Sea Level on Uplifting Islands 230 Chapter 11 Orbital-Scale Changes in Carbon Dioxide and Methane 235 Ice Cores 236 11-1 Drilling and Dating Ice Cores 236 11-2 Verifying Ice-Core Measurements of Ancient Air 237 11-3 Orbital-Scale Carbon Transfers: Carbon Isotopes 238 Orbital-Scale Changes in CO2 239 11-4 Where Did the Missing Carbon Go? 239 11-5 δ13C Evidence of Carbon Transfer 240 How Did the Carbon Get into the Deep Ocean? 242 11-6 Increased CO2 Solubility in Seawater 242 11-7 Biological Transfer from Surface Waters 242 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Using δ13C to Measure Carbon Pumping 244 11-8 Changes in Deep-Water Circulation 245 Orbital-Scale Changes in CH4 247 Orbital-Scale Climatic Roles: Forcing or Feedback? 249 Chapter 12 Orbital-Scale Interactions, Feedbacks, and Unsolved Mysteries 253 Orbital-Scale Climatic Interactions 254 12-1 Climatic Responses Driven by the Ice Sheets 254 The Mystery of the 41,000-Year Glacial World 256 12-2 Explanation 1: Insolation Varied Mainly at 41,000 Years 256 12-3 Explanation 2: Antarctic Ice Changes at 23,000 Years Cancel Northern Ones 257 12-4 Explanation 3: Positive CO2 Feedback at 1,000 Years 258 The Mystery of the ~100,000-Year Glacial World 259 12-5 How Is the Northern Ice Signal Transferred South? 261 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: The Link Between Forcing and the Time Constants of Ice Response 263 Proposed Mechanisms for ~100,000-Year Ice Buildup 263 12-6 Ice Sheets Interaction with Bedrock 263 12-7 Long-Term Cooling and CO2/Ice-Albedo Feedback 264 Proposed Mechanisms for ~100,000-Year Ice Melting 266 12-8 Timing of Deglacial Terminations 266 12-9 Proposed Local Causes of Abrupt Deglacial Terminations 267 12-10 CO2 and Ice Sheet Albedo Feedback During Terminations 267 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: An Antarctic Role in Long-Term CO2 and δ18O Trends? 268 Part IV: Glacial/Deglacial Climate Change 270 Chapter 13 The Last Glacial Maximum 273 Glacial World: More Ice, Less Gas 274 13-1 Project CLIMAP: Reconstructing the Last Glacial Maximum 274 13-2 How Large Were the Ice Sheets? 277 13-3 Glacial Dirt and Winds 278 Testing Model Simulations Against Biotic Data 280 13-4 Project COHMAP: Data-Model Comparisons 280 13-5 Pollen: An Indicator of Climate on the Continents 280 13-6 Using Pollen for Data-Model Comparisons 282 Data-Model Comparisons of Glacial Maximum Climates 283 13-7 Model Simulations of Glacial Maximum Climates 283 13-8 Climate Changes Near the Northern Ice Sheets 284 13-9 Climate Changes Far from the Northern Ice Sheets 288 How Cold Were the Glacial Tropics? 288 13-10 Evidence for a Small Tropical Cooling 289 13-11 Evidence for a Large Tropical Cooling 289 13-12 The Actual Cooling Was Medium-Small 290 Chapter 14 Climate During and Since the Last Deglaciation 293 Fire and Ice: A Shift in the Balance of Power 294 14-1 When Did the Ice Sheets Melt? 294 14-2 Coral Reefs and Rising Sea Level 295 14-3 Rapid Early Deglaciation 296 TOOLS OF CLIMATE SCIENCE: Deglacial 14C Dates Are Too Young 297 14-4 Mid-Deglacial Cooling: The Younger Dryas 298 14-5 Positive Feedbacks to Deglacial Melting 300 14-6 Deglacial Lakes, Floods, and Sea Level Rise 301 Other Climate Changes During and After Deglaciation 303 14-7 Stronger, Then Weaker Monsoons 303 CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Giant Deglacial Floods 304 14-8 Warmer, Then Cooler North Polar Summers 308 Current and Future Orbital-Scale Climatic Change 312 Chapter 15 Millennial Oscillations of Climate 315 Millennial Oscillations During Glaciations 316 15-1 Oscillations Recorded in Greenland Ice Cores 316 15-2 Oscillations Recorded in North Atlantic Sediments 317 15-3 Detecting and Dating Other Millennial Oscillations 320 15-4 Oscillations Elsewhere in the Northern Hemisphere 321 15-5 Oscillations in Antarctica 323 Millennial Oscillations During the Present Interglaciation 324 Causes of Millennial Oscillations 326 15-6 Are the Oscillations Periodic? 326 15-7 Are the Oscillations Forced by the Sun? 328 15-8 Are the Oscillations Caused by Natural Ice Sheet Instabilities? 329 15-9 Are the Oscillations Caused by Interhemispheric Climate Instabilities? 331 15-10 What Role Did the Greenhouse Gases Play? 332 15-11 Implications for Future Climate 333 Part V: Historical and Future Climate Change 334 Chapter 16 Humans and Preindustrial Climate 337 Climate and Human Evolution 338 16-1 Evidence of Human Evolution 338 16-2 Did Climate Change Drive Human Evolution? 340 16-3 Testing Climatic Hypotheses with Fragmentary Records 342 The Impact of Climate on Early Farming 343 16-4 Did Deglacial Warming Lead to Early Agriculture? 344 16-5 Impacts of Climate on Early Civilizations 344 LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Sea Level Rise and Flood Legends 346 Early Impacts of Humans on Climate 346 16-6 Did Humans Cause Megafaunal Extinctions? 346 16-7 Did Early Farmers Alter Climate? 349 Chapter 17 Climate Changes During the Last 1,000 Years 355 The Little Ice Age 356 Proxy Records of Historical Climate 358 17-1 Ice Cores from Mountain Glaciers 358 17-2 Tree Rings 361 TOOLS OF CLIMATE SCIENCE: Analyzing Tree Rings 362 17-3 Corals and Tropical Ocean Temperatures 364 17-4 Other Historical Observations 365 CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: El Niño and ENSO 366 Reconstructing Hemispheric Temperature Trends 368 Proposed Causes of Climate Change from 1000 to 1850 370 17-5 Orbital Forcing 370 17-6 The Millennial Bipolar Seesaw 370 17-7 Solar Variability 370 17-8 Volcanic Explosions 372 17-9 Greenhouse-Gas Effects on Climate 373 Chapter 18 Climatic Changes Since 1850 377 Reconstructing Changes in Sea Level 378 18-1 Fading Memories of Melted Ice Sheets 378 Other Instrumental Records 382 18-2 Thermometers: Surface Temperatures 382 18-3 Subsurface Ocean Temperatures 383 18-4 Mountain Glaciers 383 18-5 Ground Temperature 384 Satellite Observations 386 18-6 Disagreement Between Satellite and Ground Stations Resolved 386 18-7 Circumarctic Warming 387 18-8 Ice Sheets 388 Sources of the Recent Rise in Sea Level 389 Internal Oscillations 390 Chapter 19 Causes of Warming over the Last 125 Years 395 Natural Causes of Recent Warming 396 19-1 Tectonic, Orbital, and Millennial Factors 396 19-2 Century- and Decadal-Scale Factors: Solar Forcing 396 19-3 Annual-Scale Forcing: El Niños and Volcanic Eruptions 397 Anthropogenic Causes of the Recent Warming 398 19-4 Carbon Dioxide CO2 398 19-5 Methane CH4 400 19-6 Increases in Chlorofluorocarbons 401 19-7 Sulfate Aerosols 402 19-8 Brown Clouds, Black Carbon, and Global Dimming/Brightening 404 19-9 Land Clearance 405 Earth’s Sensitivity to Greenhouse Gases 405 19-10 Sensitivity in Climate Models 405 CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Radiative Forcing of Recent Warming 406 19-11 Sensitivity to Greenhouse Gases: Earth’s Climate History 408 Why Has the Warming Since 1850 Been So Small? 410 19-12 Delayed Warming: Ocean Thermal Inertia 410 19-13 Cooling from Anthropogenic Aerosols 411 Global Warming: Summary 411 Chapter 20 Future Climatic Change 413 Future Human Impacts on Greenhouse Gases 414 20-1 Factors Affecting Future Carbon Emissions 414 20-2 Projected Carbon Emissions and CO2 Concentrations 415 Effects of Future CO2 Increases on Climate and the Environment 417 20-3 A World in Climatic Disequilibrium 417 20-4 Fast Climatic Responses in a 3 X CO2 World 418 20-5 Slow Climatic Responses in a 3 X CO2 World 420 20-6 How Will the Greenhouse World Change Human Life? 423 Greenhouse Surprises? 426 20-7 Methane Clathrate Releases? 426 20-8 Chilling of the North Atlantic and Europe? 427 20-9 A Different Kind of Anthropogenic Climate Surprise: Nuclear Cooling? 427 Climate Modification? 427 20-10 Reducing Greenhouse-Gas Emissions to the Atmosphere 427 20-11 Reducing the Effects of the Sun’s Heating 428 Epilogue 430 Appendix 1 Isotopes of Oxygen 433 Appendix 2 Isotopes of Carbon 437 Glossary 439 A 439 B 439 C 440 D 441 E 441 F 442 G 442 H 442 I 443 J 443 K 443 L 443 M 444 N 444 O 445 P 445 R 446 S 446 T 447 U 448 V 448 W 448 Y 448 Index 449 A 449 B 450 C 450 D 453 E 454 F 454 G 455 H 456 I 457 J 458 K 458 L 458 M 458 N 459 O 460 P 461 Q 462 R 462 S 462 T 464 U 465 V 465 W 465 Y 465 Written from a multidisciplinary perspective by one of the field's preeminent researcher/instructors, "Earth's Climate: Past and Future" became a classroom favorite by providing an expert summary of climate change past, present, and future. The text worked equally well as either a nonmajors introduction to Earth system science or climate change, or as an upper-undergraduate-level overview of the processes and techniques in climate science. The new edition incorporates coverage of climatological events and research discoveries in the seven years since the first edition, most importantly the now broadly accepted understanding that humans play a major role in warming the planet. It also incorporates changes designed to make the material more accessible to an introductory-level audience At a time when the evidence is stronger than ever that human activity is the primary cause of global climate change, William Ruddiman's breakthrough text returns in a thoroughly updated new edition. A gain drawing on a variety of scientific disciplines, the new edition offers a clear, engaging, objective portrait of the current state of climate science, including compelling recent findings on anthropogenic global warming and important advances in understanding past climates