Muslims under Sikh Rule in the Nineteenth Century: Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Religious Tolerance (Library of Islamic South Asia)

ERIOD 183949 111 Conclusion Glossary Notes Bibliography Index v A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I am thankful to Allah, the Most Merciful and the Most Benefi cent, for giving me much-needed strength and perseverance to undertake this research work. I owe a great deal to my teacher, Prof. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal Chawla, who has been a constant source of guidance, support and inspiration throughout the development and refi nement of this study. In every academic endeavour, special people, through chance or circumstance, become part of the fabric of the story. Likewise, the eff orts of many sincere and knowledgeable teachers and friends went into the creation of this work. Collectively, they contributed priceless comments that clearly improved the quality of the fi nal product. I am also greatly indebted to the staff of the Directorate of Punjab Archives, British Library London, and the library of the Department of History and Pakistan Studies, University of the Punjab, for their unconditional support and valuable time. Completion of my research work would have not been possible without their support. Very special thanks go to Prof. Francis Robinson of Royal Holloway, University of London, UK, who despite all his engagements and constraints guided me throughout this work. He further honed my exploratory skills and gave me much-needed confi dence and skills to undertake this research. I am also grateful to Fakir Saifuddin of the Fakir Khana family, Lahore, who not only provided me with the primary documents of his family but also guided me at every stage of this writing. Finally, I am grateful to my entire family, including my husband, sons and parents, who believed in me and supported me with their love and prayed throughout this study; particularly to my fi ve-year-old son, whom I left behind in Pakistan when he needed me the most, go my deepest thanks and love. ## Robina Shoeb vi semi-independent. Th e province of Punjab was one of these. As a result, towards the end of the eighteenth century, Sikhs became politically strong and succeeded in establishing their own rule in the Punjab. Th ere is controversy among historians about the policies under the Sikh rule of the Punjab regarding Muslims, especially about Ranjit Singh's rule. While most Sikh historians have appreciated the policies of Ranjit Singh, the British and Muslims have criticized the Maharaja for his anti-Muslim policies and have quoted various atrocities infl icted on the Muslims. Th erefore, there is a clear need to analyse the Sikh regime without any bias or bigotry. In exploring the condition of the Muslims, the current study will make an unbiased and independent evaluation of Sikh rule and its policies towards Muslims. By comprehensively reviewing the existing literature and artefacts, and interviewing academics, researchers and others, the study will try to fi nd evidence to appraise the policies of the Sikh regime vis-à -vis the Muslims. It will make a suitable contribution to the existing literature and help to explain the current dynamics of the relationship between Muslims and Sikhs. Th e personality and polity of Maharaja Ranjit Singh has been the subject of great controversy among historians. Writers such as Cunningham 1 and Kohli 2 point to some very 'high and noble' motives, which mainly drove his passion for the creation of a grand kingdom that subsequently proved to be a great source of pride for the Sikhs and posterity. Other scholars such as Prinsep 3 and Sinha 4 term his polity a farce, which was only a 'jigsaw block' in his overall grand military and political scheme. By and large, kingdoms are created and sustained through strength of arms and armies. However, the basic norm to measure a ruler's greatness should be the manner in which the ruler 'wields his authority. To what end does he use his power, for the furtherance of his personal ambitions or for the welfare of his subjects through the projection of eternal values of truth, goodness, equity, justice, and freedom?' 5 Both Eric Bentley 6 and J. B. Macaulay 7 lament history being made a mere record of the 'court and camp of royal intrigues and state rivalry, of pageants or processions or chivalric encounters' . Bentley believes that 'history does not lie in laws, Senate Houses or battle-fi elds but in the tide of thought and action -the world of existence that brightens, glooms, blossoms and fades' . He adds that 'what gives meaning to history is not merely the exploits and aggressive enterprises of the conquerors and kings, but how the victorious sword is used during the time of peace' . In line with this principle, by exploring the condition of Muslims under a Sikh ruler, the current study attempts to capture the real ethos of the Sikh kingdom under the legendary Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In tracing the origins of the hostility between Muslims and Sikhs, Jean-Marie Lafont 8 observes that Sikhism grew at a time when Hinduism and Islam were intensifying their 'orthodoxies and were evolving under the infl uence of Bhaktis and Sufi s' . He further observes that a pleasant and healthy relationship existed between Sikhs and early Mughal emperors including Babur, Humayun and Akbar. Unlike their ancestors, later Mughal emperors, including Jahangir, Shahjahan and Alamgir, A large body of literature holds that Ranjit Singh was an enlightened and moderate ruler who looked at everyone with 'one eye' . His policies and administration were fair, temperate and equitable for all faiths, including Islam. However, a number of historians, both Sikh and non-Sikh, believe that Ranjit Singh's tolerant policies were based on political and administrative expediency. Th us, the picture remains unclear about the Sikh regime's policy towards the Muslims. A brief review of the literature follows. W. G. Osborne 19 presents an in-depth account of everyday proceedings at the Maharaja's court. However, the author mentions hardly anything that refl ects upon maltreatment of Muslims. Instead, the book presents a detailed description of the personality of Fakir Azizuddin who had a signifi cant infl uence over Ranjit Singh. Fakir Azizuddin's special status at court, in fact, signifi es a positive relationship between Muslims and the Sikh rulers. Sohan Lal Suri's Umdat-ut-Tawarikh contains information on many matters during the reign of Ranjit Singh. 20 Th ere are frequent references to the movements, events and charities supported by the Maharaja, his participation in festivals, and his treatment of those who served him. All the happenings in the Lahore Darbar (court), his interest in the army and in administration, his revenue policy, and even allegiance from his Muslim and Hindu subjects. Dhillon reports that 'during his reign, there were no outbursts of communal fanaticism, no forced conversions, no attempts at bloody revenge, no language tensions, no second-class citizens, no repression, no bloodshed, no executions and no tortures' . Jean-Marie Lafont presents a very impressive and lucid catalogue of the life and times of Ranjit Singh on the occasion of the bicentenary celebrations of the Maharaja in Amritsar in 2001. 32 Soon aft er his accession to the throne of Lahore, he appointed a Muslim, Imam Bukhsh, as Kotwal (police offi cer) of Lahore, also taking due care to preserve the Muslim places of worship. Teaching institutions of various religious groups, including Muslims, were also maintained with the help of state grants and estates. Like many other authors, Lafont also mentions the restoration of the Sonehri Mosque to the Muslims, confi rming that Ranjit Singh was a shrewd, tolerant and bias-free king. Fauja Singh and A. C. Arora's book on Maharaja Ranjit Singh, his politics, society and the economy, is a compilation of articles written by many famous writers, including Grewal, Kirpal Singh, Indu Banga and Bina Parsad, about the ruler of the Punjab, describing his diff erent qualities and the nature of the administration of the Lahore Darbar . 33 G. S. Chhabra discusses every event relating to the lives of the Gurus and their deaths, and describes the causes of Sikh-Muslim enmity and its eff ects on both communities. 34 Th e rise of Ranjit Singh, his character, his revenue system, his military policy, and his relations with his subjects are all discussed in detail, as are the reasons for the failure of the Sikh regime, the invasion of the British and the various conspiracies. Th is is a very useful book for the knowledge it imparts on the whole of Sikh history. Fauja Singh gives a detailed study of the organization and establishment of the Sikh army during the period of Ranjit Singh. 35 It was the fi rst attempt to examine the character of the military system of the Sikh rulers of the Punjab, which among other things hastened the end of Indian independence and the establishment of British rule. Th is book also throws light on the fact that the military policy of Ranjit Singh turned his old, badly organized army into a new, effi cient one under the supervision of French offi cers. Th is strategy aff ected the army's organization, recruitment, pay and allowances, and moral discipline, all discussed here in detail, along with the reasons for the failure of the Sikh army in fi ghting the British. Khushwant Singh's book on Ranjit Singh is a classic biography. 36 From the status of petty chieft ain, Ranjit Singh rose to become the most powerful Indian ruler of his time. His empire extended from Tibet to the deserts of Sindh and from the Khyber Pass to Sutlej. His army was one of the most powerful of the time in India and was the fi rst Indian force in a thousand years to stem the tides of invasion from the northwest frontiers of India. In this classic work, Khushwant Singh presents Ranjit Singh as he really was, including his weaknesses and strengths. Based on Persian, Punjabi and English sources and drawing upon the diaries and accounts of European travellers including Moorcroft , Sir Alexander Burne, Masson, Fane and Emily Eden, it presents a lively portrait of one of the most colourful characters in Indian history. J. S. Grewal, in the series New Cambridge History of India, in some respects marks a radical change in the style of the Cambridge histories. 37 His work falls into four well-marked periods: from its beginning with the mission of Guru Nanak to the death of Guru Gobind Singh in 1708; the rise of Banda Bairagi to the annexation of the Punjab by the British in 1849; the near-century of colonial rule up to 1947; and the four decades following independence. Fakir Syed Aijazuddin, another member of the famous Fakir family, writes a very informative book covering the period of Ranjit Singh. 38 Although the author belongs to the Fakir family, he relies on information not only from his own family documents but also from other sources, especially British writers. It gives us the real picture of the Lahore Darbar and the character of Ranjit Singh. Th e writer not only describes the infl uence of his ancestors but also their faithfulness towards the Maharaja. K. S. Duggal portrays the emergence of the phenomenon that was Ranjit Singh in its historical setting, tracing in detail the evolution of the Sikh commonwealth from the time of Guru Nanak. 39 Under the Gurus, the basic Sikh tenets and institutions were built. Th e fi ghts of the Sikhs under Banda Bairagi against the Mughal rulers, the establishment of the Sikh misls , their fi ghts with the Muslim ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali and the rise of Ranjit Singh, as well as the establishment of the Punjabi rule, are all described in a straightforward manner. Th e author intelligently explores the personality of Ranjit Singh, who was not a common character but was possessed of powers of mind rarely encountered either in the East or in the Western world. Th e author highlights his generosity, his liberal outlook and his equal treatment of his entire people, no matter who or which religion they belonged to. He also highlights the ruler's aff ection for art and education. In fact, this book is a tribute to the great leader's love and care for his people without any discrimination of race or creed, also correcting several faulty perspectives of European writers concerning the personality and character of the Maharaja. Rajinder Singh presents the life story of Ranjit Singh from his early conquests up to his death. 40 Th e author tries to dispel the mist that hangs over the personality of this great ruler, as he considers the literature to be very blurred, controversial and sometimes uninteresting, and from which no clear image of the man emerges. Maharaja Ranjit Singh and His Times is a collection by J. S. Grewal and Indu Banga, both renowned historians of the Punjab. 41 Th e title of the book comes directly from the subject of a seminar organized by the Guru Nanak Dev University for the 200-year celebrations of the Maharaja. Th e papers cover a wide range of themes from politics and government, art and literature, historiography and the agrarian system, to military, economic and social structures during the reign of Ranjit Singh. Th e biography by Patwant Singh and Jyoti M. Rai covers not only the entire range of Ranjit Singh's military achievements but also his just and humane rule. 42 It discusses his daily routine, his likes and dislikes, and his everyday dealings with his people. It also discusses his relations with diff erent women in his life and their infl uence on him, and the courtiers in his darbar whom he treated with equality no matter to which religion they belonged. Th e writers have drawn on many sources concerning the period, both primary and secondary, in order to answer the questions they pose. Th ey argue that Ranjit Singh included more non-Sikhs in his cabinet than any other ruler in the subcontinent. J. S. Grewal's other book examines the philosophy of the Sikh Gurus. 43 Th ere are thirty essays, nearly all based on contemporary evidence, each making a few basic points, and not necessarily off ering a direct discussion of the broad theme. Th ere are overlaps too in terms of the information given in each chapter. In the fi rst part of the book, which consists of six chapters, the ideology of Guru Nanak is discussed. Guru Nanak looked upon the contemporary systems of religious belief and practices in terms of three traditions: the Brahmanical, the Ascetical and the Islamic. Th e second part is made up of eleven chapters, all directly or indirectly related to the Khalsa . Th e third part comprises eight essays on Sikh polity. Th e organization of the Sikh misls as a unity of the Sikhs is discussed from the viewpoint of several historians. Th e last chapter on the Sikh Raj and Sikh social order is based on the contemporary evidence of the Gurbilas literature, Rahitnamas, and chronicles in Persian, the Gurmukhi and early British writers. Indu Banga covers the period of Sikh rule in the Punjab during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. 44 Following a brief explanation of the political and offi cial developments of the period that aff ected the agrarian system, the emphasis of this study is on the sardars , the chiefs, the jagirdars (holders of jagirs ), the dharmarth (charity) grantees, the poor, land income, revenue management and land occupancy. Th e book is marked by many long footnotes to support the proof of a point -helpful for readers who have a special interest in this subject. Amrinder Singh starts with the success story of Ranjit Singh and ends with the annexation of the Punjab in 1849, covering almost all of Ranjit Singh's reign and the activities of the Lahore Darbar . 45 It discusses the intrigues aft er the death of Ranjit Singh, which became the main cause of the decline of the darbar . A detailed discussion of the Sikh wars and the annexation of the Punjab occupies a large part of the book. J. S. Grewal writes on the political-administrative organization, agrarian and town economy and the social order during Ranjit Singh's times. 46 Th is book has no references or notes but it does take into account the known existing sources and historical research. In fact there is hardly any statement that does not come from a reliable source, and a vital understanding of Ranjit Singh emerges from this pragmatic evidence. Purnima Dhavan explores the formation of the Sikh community, comprising Sikh peasants, scholars and chiefs, over the course of the eighteenth century -a crucial time for Sikh political development. 47 Dhavan challenges the popular thinking that attributes the formation of the Khalsa 's rites and practices to the Tenth Guru, Gobind Singh. By doing so, she argues that the emergence of the Khalsa and promotion of martial practices among the Sikhs cannot be understood in separation from the mobilization of the peasant populations. Th is emphasis on the agency of the peasant communities allows Dhavan to uncover a range of Cover Halftitle page Series page Title page Copyright page CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS INTRODUCTION Chapter 1 SIKH-MUSLIM RELATIONS: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Sikh–Muslim Relations – Common Grounds for Alliance Genesis of Sikhism – Sociopolitical Context A Brief Introduction of Sikh Gurus Relationship between Mughal Emperors and Sikh Gurus – Revisited Sikh–Muslim Relations – Later Developments (1708–99) Conclusion Chapter 2 CONQUESTS OF MAHARAJA RANJIT SINGH: TREATMENT OF THE FALLEN MUSLIM RULERS AND POPULATION Early Life Conquests of Maharaja Ranjit Singh Conquest of Muslim States: Lahore Kasur Multan Jhang Peshawar, Attock, Hazara, Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khan, Mankera and other areas Tehrik-e-Mujahidin Kashmir Conquest of Sikh States Conquests of Hindu States Story of the Famous Koh-e-Noor Diamond Conclusion Chapter 3 STATE POLICIES TOWARDS MUSLIMS: REALITY OR FAÇADE Socio-religious Demography of the Punjab Religious Policy Buildings – Shrines and Mosques Muslim Historic and Cultural Centres Akalis Economic Condition, Policies and Opportunities Case of Kashmir Economy of Multan Economic Potential of Other Parts of the Punjab Land Revenue, Agriculture, and Farming Policies and Prospects Educational Policy Justice System Conclusion Chapter 4 SARKAR-E-KHALSA: STATUS AND ROLE OF HINDU, MUSLIM AND EUROPEAN COURTIERS Darbar of Maharaja Ranjit Singh Composition of the Darbar: Courtiers Ministers and Executives General Administration Hindu Courtiers and Officials Diwan Mohkam Chand Diwan Moti Ram Diwan Kirpa Ram Misr Diwan Chand Diwan Dina Nath Misr Beli Ram European Officers Muslim Courtiers and Officials Fakir Brothers Conclusion Chapter 5 SIKH-MUSLIM RELATIONS IN THE POST-RANJIT SINGH PERIOD (1839-49) Sikh Rulers (1839–49) Kharak Singh (1839–40) Nau Nihal Singh Rani Chand Kaur Sher Singh Dilip Singh Council of Ministers: Muslims’ Role and Representation Sikh Army: An Unruly Power Impact on Khalsa Sarkar British Interest Situation in the Punjab Countryside after 1839 Conclusion CONCLUSION GLOSSARY NOTES BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX "Though the history of Sikh-Muslim relations is fraught with conflict, this book examines how the policies of Sikh rulers attempted to avoid religious bigotry and prejudice at a time when Muslims were treated as third-class citizens. Focusing on the socio-economic, political and religious condition of Muslims under Sikh rule in the Punjab during the 19th century, this book demonstrates that Maharaja Ranjit Singh and his successors took a secular approach towards their subjects. Using various archival sources, including the Fakir Khana Family archives and the Punjab Archives, the author argues citizens had freedom to practice their religion, with equal access to employment, education and justice"-- Provided by publisher