Muslims in the Western World: Sense of Belonging and Political Identity (Immigrants and Minorities, Politics and Policy)

This book provides an overview of the identity and sense of belonging of Muslims in the Western world. By presenting case studies on European countries such as France, the Netherlands and the UK, as well as the USA and Canada, it offers a comparative perspective on how Muslims feel toward and are integrated in their country of residence. The respective contributions examine the sense of belonging and identity of Muslims and compare their levels of integration. Furthermore, they discuss the compatibility of their religious beliefs and values with the political and democratic order of their country of residence, and make concrete policy recommendations. The book is chiefly intended for scholars of political science and migration studies who are seeking a comparative perspective on the status quo of Muslims’ integration in the Western world. Acknowledgments 6 Contents 7 Contributors 9 The Importance of Studying Muslims in Western Countries 10 1 Introduction 10 2 Why do we Study Muslims and Their Identity and Sense of Belonging in Western Countries? 12 3 Who is a Muslim? 14 4 What is Identity and Belonging? 15 References 17 Muslims’ Sense of Belonging and Identification in the Western World: An Overview and Comparison of Scientific Literature in North America and Europe 19 1 Introduction 19 2 Methodology 21 3 Major Findings 22 4 Muslims’ National Identification 22 4.1 Islam: A Matter of National Identity and/or Security? 23 5 Differences across European Countries 25 6 Local Belonging and Sub-national Variation 26 7 Diversity within the Muslim Community 26 8 Conclusion 28 Appendix: Reviewed Studies 29 References 34 American Muslim Immigrants: Identity and Belonging in the Shadow of 9/11 37 1 American Muslim Immigrants: Identity and Belonging in the Shadow of 9/11 37 2 Immigrant American Muslim Evolution(s) 38 2.1 An Enduring Myth 38 2.2 A Brief History of the Immigrant American Muslim Experience 39 2.3 Generational Divide 41 3 Demographics and Data 43 4 Assessing American Muslim Immigrant Identity and Belonging 45 4.1 Religiosity 46 4.2 Suspicion and Skepticism 47 4.3 Resilient Belonging 49 5 Conclusion 50 Appendix A: Regression Results 51 References 53 Muslims in Canada: Their Identity and Sense of Belonging 55 1 Introduction 55 2 Muslims in Canada 56 3 History of Muslims in Canada 57 4 Existing Studies 58 5 Our Study 60 6 Overview Statistics 60 7 Explaining Variation in Muslims’ Attachment to Canada and Their Life Satisfaction 62 7.1 Hypotheses 63 8 Statistical Procedures 64 9 Results 65 10 Conclusion 68 References 69 Muslim Immigrants in France: Sense of Identity and Belonging 71 1 Demographics of Muslim Communities in France 71 1.1 Sociological Muslims 71 1.2 Professing Muslims 73 1.3 The Socio-Economic Profile of Muslims in France 74 1.4 Civic Participation and Representation of Muslims in Political Processes 75 2 Diversity of Identities and External Influences 76 2.1 A Persisting Influence of the Originate Countries and of the International Islamic Organisations 76 3 Between Terrorism, Reforms and Secularity 80 3.1 Islamic Terrorism: A Treason Against the Host Country? 80 3.2 Looking for a “Modern” Manner to Claim a Place for Islam in French Society: The Role of Tariq Ramadan 82 3.3 The Evolution of Muslim Sense of Identity and Belonging During the Last 30 Years 83 References 86 Muslim Immigrants’ Sense of Identity and Belonging in the Western World—The Case of Austria 88 1 Introduction 88 1.1 Who are the Muslims in Austria? 89 1.2 Alevis 91 1.3 Jihadism 91 1.4 New Elite? 92 1.5 Beyond Islam 93 1.6 The Recent History of Organized Islam in Austria 93 1.7 Muslims’ Sense of Identity in a Climate of (Some) Hostility 97 1.8 Final Remark 98 References 98 Muslim Immigrants in the Netherlands: Characteristics, Identification and Diversity 100 1 What Is the Sense of Belonging and (Political) Identity Among Muslim Immigrants in the Netherlands? 103 2 Differences Among Muslims in the Netherlands and Different Subgroups 108 3 Conclusion 112 3.1 Individualisation, Mild Secularisation and Religious Revitalisation 112 3.2 Almost No Increase in Secularisation Despite Rising Education Level and Generational Succession 113 3.3 Sense of Belonging of Muslims in a Secular, Individualised and Hostile Society 114 References 114 Muslims in Britain: From Forcible Assimilation to Preventable Radicalisation 117 1 Introduction 117 1.1 Historical Context 118 1.2 Post-War Migration and Settlement 119 2 Education and Employment 120 3 Islamophobia, Securitisation, and Radicalisation 122 3.1 Assessing British Muslim Social Attitudes 122 3.2 Demarcating anti-Muslim Hatred 124 3.3 Populism and Authoritarianism 126 3.4 From Exclusion into Radicalisation 127 3.5 Co-radicalisation 128 4 Discussion and Concluding Remarks 129 References 131 Belonging, Identification and Trust Among Self-Identified Muslims in Sweden: What We Know and What We don’t Know 135 1 Muslims in Sweden or Swedish Muslims? 137 2 Migration, Policies and Trust 139 3 Data from the Research Site of Sweden 141 3.1 Self-defined Muslims and Religious Groups of Comparison 141 3.2 Dependent Variables—Interpersonal Trust, Identification and Feeling Valued 142 3.3 Analytical strategy 143 4 Self-Defined Muslims in Sweden and Interpersonal Trust 143 5 Self-defined Muslims in Sweden, Identification and Belonging 144 6 Concluding Discussion 146 7 Future Research 148 References 150 Lessons from the Book and Future Research 153 References 156 Chapter 1. The Importance of Studying Muslims in Western Countries (Daniel Stockemer) -- Chapter 2. Muslims Sense of Belonging and Identification in the Western World: An Overview and Comparison of Scientific Literature in North America and Europe written (Zeynep Sezgin) -- Chapter 3. American Muslim Immigrants: Identity and Belonging in the Shadow of 9/11 (Youssef Chouhoud) -- Chapter 4. Muslims in Canada: Their Identity and Sense of Belonging (Daniel Stockemer) -- Chapter 5. Muslim Immigrants in France: Sense of Identity and Belonging (Jacques Barou) -- Chapter 6. Muslim Immigrants Sense of Identity and Belonging in the Western World The Case of Austria (Rudiger Lohlker) -- Chapter 7. Muslim Immigrants in the Netherlands: Characteristics, Identification and Diversity (Willem Huijnk) -- Chapter 8. Muslims in Britain: From Forcible Assimilation to Preventable Radicalisation (Tahir Abbas) -- Chapter 9. Belonging, Identification and Trust Among Self-identified Muslims in Sweden: What we Know and What we Dont Know written (Goran Larsson) -- Chapter 10. Lessons from the Book and future Research (Daniel Stockemer)