Motivation and Desire : A New Way to Think About Why We Do Everything and Its Basis in Neuroscience

Desire, motivation, drive, reward, reinforcement, pleasure, enjoyment—each of these terms has a slightly different meaning, but all refer to the same process: when we do something that produces a positive outcome, we want to do it again. This is so fundamental to our existence that we rarely think about how it works; it just happens.There are myriad experiments in rats and pigeons (and people too, of course) that have examined the parameters of motivation, as well as the brain circuitry that is involved. Various theories of motivation have been proposed and discussed since the beginnings of psychology. “Drive” is another term that has been used to describe motivating factors, especially in animals, and survives in everyday language as the term “sexdrive.”We can also find many studies of motivation in education, business, or other walks of life related to, for example, the best ways of motivating students to learn. In the context of education, motivation is often divided into “intrinsic” vs. “extrinsic” motivation. In its simplest form, intrinsic motivation refers to an internaldesire to learn or to do something for its own sake, whereas extrinsic motivation refers to tangible rewards, such as money, status, prizes, or gold stars for children.Intrinsic motivation applies to activities that are, in themselves, enjoyable. Extrinsic motivation is operative when unrelated rewards are superimposed on an activity. Ryan and Deci (2000) provide a particularly appealing perspective on intrinsic motivation as related to psychological needs and socialdevelopment. Preface Acknowledgments Contents Author Biography List of Figures List of Tables Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Overview 1.2 Scope and Purpose References Part I: A Classification Scheme for Motivation Chapter 2: Reward, Punishment, Desire, Pleasure, and Terminology 2.1 Reward and Punishment 2.2 Terms Used in Discussing Motivation 2.3 Phases of Motivated Behavior 2.4 Discussion Questions References Chapter 3: A Classification Scheme 3.1 Three Types of Motivation 3.2 Motivation Viewed as Intrinsic, Extrinsic, Instrumental, or Internal References Chapter 4: Type A motivation or Biological Needs 4.1 Eating 4.2 Drinking 4.3 Sex and Reproduction 4.4 Nurturing 4.5 Shelter 4.6 Money 4.7 Conclusions 4.8 Discussion Questions References Chapter 5: Type B or Social Motivation 5.1 Distinguishing Type B from Type A Motivation 5.2 Cooperation Versus Competition 5.3 Social Dominance in Animals 5.4 Social Dominance in Humans: Power, Influence, and Recognition 5.5 Fame and Political Influence 5.6 Reclusivity and Hikikomori 5.7 Loneliness 5.8 Pets 5.9 Other Common Forms of Social Contact 5.10 Families 5.11 Charity Work and Volunteering 5.12 Discussion Questions References Chapter 6: Type C Motivation as Growth and Development of Cerebral Organization 6.1 Learning and Type C Motivation 6.2 Origins of the Type C Motivation Concept 6.3 Why Does Type C Motivation Exist? 6.4 Challenge and Resolution 6.5 Why Is Type C Motivation Important? 6.6 Discussion Questions References Chapter 7: Long-Term Executive Function 7.1 How Executive Function Can Be Assessed 7.2 Long-Term Planning as Executive Function 7.3 Executive Function as a General and as a Scientific Concept 7.4 Discussion Questions References Chapter 8: Relevant Concepts from Motivational Psychology 8.1 Behaviorism and Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation 8.2 Intrinsic-Extrinsic Versus Internal-Instrumental Motivation 8.3 Maslow’s Essential Need Theory Versus Alderfer’s ERG Theory 8.4 Discussion Questions References Chapter 9: Altruism 9.1 Social Empathy Contributes to Altruism 9.2 Neurocomputational View of Altruism 9.3 Altruistic Acts Can Cause Pleasure 9.4 Conclusions 9.5 Discussion Questions References Chapter 10: Are Some People Motivated Differently Than Others? 10.1 Managing Basic Necessities 10.2 What Drives Our Social Needs? 10.3 Fostering Intellectual Pursuits 10.4 Historical Figures 10.5 Conclusion 10.6 Discussion Questions References Part II: Brain Mechanisms and Disorders Chapter 11: Biology of Motivation, Dopamine, and Brain Circuits That Mediate Pleasure 11.1 Brain Cell Types and Neurotransmitters 11.2 A Closer Look at Dopamine 11.3 Motivation to Eat 11.4 Aversion, Novelty, and Movement 11.5 Serotonin 11.6 Where Is Pleasure Represented in the Brain? 11.7 Summary 11.8 Discussion Questions References Chapter 12: What Electrical Stimulation of the Brain Tells Us About Motivation 12.1 Electrical Brain Stimulation in Humans 12.2 Brain Circuits in Rewarding Electrical Stimulation 12.3 Animals Self-Activate Hunger or Thirst 12.4 Discussion Questions References Chapter 13: How the Brain Signals Reward 13.1 Prediction of Reward 13.2 Prediction Error Response of Dopamine Neurons 13.3 What Does This Mean for Our Daily Lives? 13.4 Prediction Error and Habits 13.5 Discussion Questions References Chapter 14: Type C Motivation in Rats 14.1 Dopamine Neurons Are Important for Learning Associations Between Environmental Cues 14.2 Other Neurons Inhibit Learning of Associations 14.3 Conclusions 14.4 Discussion Questions References Chapter 15: Type C Motivation in Humans 15.1 Learning Seems to Be Rewarding in Itself 15.2 Novel Experiments to Examine Learning Without a Tangible Reward 15.3 A Personal Example 15.4 Discussion Questions References Chapter 16: Brain Mechanisms Related to Social and Reproductive Behavior 16.1 Social Interaction Activates Brain Reward Mechanisms in Human Subjects 16.2 Autism 16.3 Oxytocin 16.4 Social Dominance and Social Defeat 16.5 Conclusions 16.6 Discussion Questions References Chapter 17: Parkinson’s Disease 17.1 Dopamine Dysregulation Syndrome 17.2 Impulse Control Disorder in Parkinson’s Disease and in Addiction 17.3 Transplantation of Dopamine Neurons 17.4 Discussion Questions References Chapter 18: Addiction 18.1 Multiple Types of Drugs Can Be Addictive 18.2 Why Do Drugs Subvert Motivation? 18.3 Adaptations Caused by Long-Term Exposure to Drugs 18.4 Rewarding Effects of Drugs: Anhedonia, Pleasure, and Motivation 18.5 Nondrug Addictions 18.6 Discussion Questions References Chapter 19: Depression and Other Forms of Mental Illness 19.1 Properties of Depression 19.2 Motivation in Depression 19.3 Ketamine 19.4 Other Forms of Mental Illness 19.5 Conclusions 19.6 Discussion Questions References Chapter 20: Conclusions 20.1 How Rewards Work for Different Types of Motivation 20.2 Positive Feedback in Type C Motivation 20.3 Discussion Questions References Index "Some of our time is spent eating and drinking and some is spent on matters regarding reproduction. Some of us seek fame or recognition while others seek satisfaction internally, with little need for recognition. Some people study for success in a profession, while others might study rocks, birds, or French literature for no apparent reason other than to know about it. Why are we motivated to engage in so many apparently unrelated activities? This book places our various activities into categories, thus providing a framework for understanding how everything that we do fits together and is based on brain mechanisms. Disturbances in motivation play important roles in autism, depression, Parkinson's disease, and addiction. Understanding the motivational aspects of these disorders can help to inform our approach to these conditions. This book may be of value for students in psychology, counseling, management, and anyone who is interested in understanding our daily behavior."--page 4 of cover