Molecular to Global Photosynthesis (Series on Photoconversion of Solar Energy, Vol. 2)

Green Plants And Photosynthetic Organisms Are The Earth's Natural Photoconverters Of Solar Energy. In Future, Biomass And Bioenergy Will Become Increasingly Significant Energy Sources, Making A Contribution Both To Carbon Dioxide Abatement And To The Security, Diversity And Sustainability Of Global Energy Supplies. In This Book, Experts Provide A Series Of Authoritative Chapters On The Intricate Mechanisms Of Photosynthesis And The Potential For Using And Improving Photosynthetic Organisms, Plants And Trees To Sequester Carbon Dioxide And To Provide Fuel And Useful Chemicals For The Benefit Of Man. [publisher Web Site]. Photosynthesis And Photoconversion / J. Barber, M.d. Archer -- Evolution And Progress Of Ideas -- The 'blue Print' Of The Photosynthetic Apparatus -- Energy-storage Efficiency Of Photosynthesis -- Energy And Chemicals From Biomass -- Light Absorption And Harvesting / A. Holzwarth -- Theoretical Aspects Of Energy Transfer In Photosynthetic Antennae -- General Principles Of Organisation Of Light-harvesting Antennae -- Structural And Functional Basis For Light Absorption And Harvesting -- Electron Transfer In Photosynthesis / W. Leibl, P. Mathis -- Biological Electron Transfer -- Electron Transfer In Anoxygenic Photosynthesis -- Electron Transfer In Oxygenic Photosynthesis -- Photosynthetic Electron Transfer: Importance Of Kinetics -- Photosynthetic Carbon Assimilation / G.e. Edwards, D.a. Walker -- Environmental And Metabolic Role -- Chloroplast And Cell -- C[subscript 3] Photosynthesis In Its Relation To The Photochemistry -- The Calvin Cycle -- Autocatalysis: Adding To The Triose Phosphate Pool -- Photorespiration -- Co[subscript 2]-concentrating Mechanisms -- Survival And Efficiencies Of Photosynthesis -- Regulation Of Photosynthesis In Higher Plants / D. Godde, J.f. Bornman -- Anatomy, Morphology And Genetic Basis Of Photosynthesis In Higher Plants -- Adaptation Of Photosynthetic Electron Transport To Excess Irradiance -- Regulation Of Photosynthetic Electron Transport By Co[subscript 2] And Oxygen -- Feedback Regulation Of Photosynthesis -- Factors Limiting Plant Growth -- Possible Plant Responses To Future Climate Changes. Editors, Mary D. Archer, James Barber. Includes Bibliographical References (p. 728-740) And Index. Molecular to Global Photosynthesis......Page 4 CONTENTS......Page 8 About the Authors......Page 12 Preface......Page 20 1.1 Introduction......Page 22 1.1.1 Photosynthesis as the creator of fossil fuels and biomass......Page 23 1.1.2 Photosynthesis and the modern atmosphere......Page 24 1.1.3 Fluxes and sinks of photosynthetic carbon......Page 25 1.1.4 Oxygenic and anoxygenic photosynthesis......Page 27 1.2.1 Evolution of photosynthetic organisms......Page 33 1.2.2 Landmarks in photosynthesis research......Page 37 1.3 The ‘blue print’ of the photosynthetic apparatus......Page 39 1.3.1 Reaction centres......Page 40 1.3.2 Light-harvesting systems......Page 41 1.3.3 Photosynthetic membranes......Page 43 1.3.4 Energetics of electron-transfer processes in reaction centres......Page 44 1.3.5 Reaction centre structures......Page 46 1.3.6 The dark reactions of photosynthesis......Page 48 1.4 Energy-storage efficiency of photosynthesis......Page 49 1.4.2 Gross efficiency ignoring respiration......Page 50 1.4.3 Net efficiency allowing for respiration......Page 52 1.4.4 Efficiencies achieved in wild and cultivated crops......Page 54 1.5 Energy and chemicals from biomass......Page 55 References......Page 58 2.1.1 The photosynthetic unit......Page 64 2.1.2 Why are antenna systems necessary?......Page 65 2.2.1 Forster energy transfer......Page 68 2.2.2 Coherent exciton motion......Page 70 2.3.1 Chlorophylls and carotenoids......Page 72 2.4.1 Photosystem I......Page 74 2.4.2 Photosystem II core antenna complex......Page 82 2.4.3 Peripheral LHCll complex of PSII and minor light-harvesting complexes......Page 84 2.4.4 The role of carotenoids in PSII......Page 89 2.4.5 Supraorganisation of light-harvesting systems in Photosystem II......Page 93 2.4.6 Purple photosynthetic bacterial antennae systems......Page 94 2.4.7 Non-protein containing antenna systems of green bacteria (chlorosomes)......Page 97 2.4.8 The FMO complex......Page 101 2.5 Concluding remarks......Page 102 References......Page 119 3 Electron transfer in photosynthesis W. Leibl and P. Mathis......Page 138 3.1 Biological electron transfer......Page 140 3.1.1 Energetics and kinetics of electron transfer......Page 141 3.2.2 The reaction centre of purple photosynthetic bacteria......Page 144 3.2.3 The bc1 complex......Page 155 3.2.4 The reaction centre of green sulphur bacteria and Heliobacteria......Page 157 3.3.1 Overall electron transfer: the Z-scheme......Page 162 3.3.2 Photosystem II reaction centre......Page 164 3.3.3 Photosystem I......Page 180 3.4 Photosynthetic electron transfer: importance of kinetics......Page 184 3.4.1 Electron transfer theory: factors governing kinetics......Page 185 3.4.2 The role of the driving force G......Page 187 3.4.3 The role of the reorganisation energy......Page 189 3.4.4 The role of the distance r......Page 190 3.4.5 Primary charge separation......Page 192 Editors’ note added in proof......Page 194 References......Page 195 4.1 Environmental and metabolic role......Page 210 4.2 Chloroplast and cell......Page 212 4.3 C3 photosynthesis in its relation to the photochemistry......Page 213 4.4.1 Carboxylation......Page 215 4.4.2 Mechanism......Page 217 4.4.3 Reduction......Page 219 4.4.4 Regeneration......Page 220 4.4.4 The phosphate translocator......Page 223 4.5 Autocatalysis: adding to the triose phosphate pool......Page 224 4.6 Photorespiration......Page 225 4.6.1 Photorespiration via the Mehler-peroxidase reaction......Page 226 4.6.2 Photorespiration via RuBP oxygenase......Page 227 4.7 CO2-concentrating mechanisms......Page 230 4.7.1 CAM plants......Page 231 4.7.2 C4 plants......Page 235 4.8 Survival and efficiencies of photosynthesis......Page 237 References......Page 238 5 Regulation of photosynthesis in higher plants D. Godde and J. F. Bornman......Page 242 5.1.1 Genetic basis......Page 243 5.1.2 Anatomical and morphological leaf features......Page 244 5.2 Adaptation of photosynthetic electron transport to excess irradiance......Page 247 5.2.1 Reversible down-regulation of Photosystem II by non-radiative quenching of excitation energy......Page 248 5.2.2 Irreversible inactivation of PSII......Page 249 5.2.3 Inactivation of the PSI reaction centre......Page 251 5.2.4 Repair of inactivated PSII centres by D1 protein turnover......Page 252 5.3 Regulation of photosynthetic electron transport by CO2 and oxygen......Page 259 5.4 Feedback regulation of photosynthesis......Page 260 5.4.1 Regulation of chloroplast metabolism by phosphate availability......Page 261 5.4.2 Interaction between photosynthesis and assimilate transport......Page 262 5.5.1 Low temperatures......Page 263 5.5.2 High temperatures......Page 265 5.5.2 Arid climates......Page 267 5.5.3 Mineral deficiencies......Page 269 5.6.1 High CO2......Page 271 5.6.2 High tropospheric ozone......Page 273 5.6.3 Enhanced UV-B radiation......Page 274 5.7 Improving plant biomass......Page 279 References......Page 281 6.1 Introduction......Page 308 6.2 From the origin of life to the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis......Page 309 6.2.1 The cyanobacteria......Page 314 6.2.2 The eukaryotes......Page 316 6.3 Photophysiological adaptations to aquatic environments......Page 319 6.3.1 Cell size......Page 322 6.3.2 Light and its utilisation......Page 324 6.4 Quantum yields of photosynthesis in the ocean......Page 327 6.5 Net primary production in the contemporary ocean......Page 328 6.6 Biogeochemical controls and consequences......Page 332 References......Page 335 7.1 Introduction......Page 344 7.2 Microalgae......Page 347 7.2.1 Aquaculture and animal feed......Page 348 7.2.2 Wastewater treatment systems......Page 352 7.2.3 Health food for human consumption......Page 354 7.2.4 Specific products from microalgae......Page 357 7.2.5 Culture systems......Page 368 7.3 Macroalgae......Page 374 7.3.1 Food products and animal feed......Page 375 7.3.2 Wastewater treatment and integrated systems......Page 377 7.3.4 Specific products from macroalgae......Page 378 7.3.5 Culture systems......Page 384 7.4 Concluding remarks......Page 387 References......Page 388 8.1 Photobiological hydrogen production—a useful evolutionary oddity......Page 418 8.2 Distribution and activity of H2 photoproducers......Page 421 8.2.1 Photosynthetic bacteria......Page 422 8.2.2 Cyanobacteria......Page 425 8.2.3 Algae......Page 429 8.3.1 Nitrogenases......Page 431 8.3.2 Hydrogenases......Page 434 8.4 Metabolic versatility and conditions for hydrogen evolution......Page 439 8.5 Quantum and energetic efficiencies of hydrogen photoproduction......Page 443 8.6 Hydrogen production biotechnology......Page 446 8.6.1 Hydrogen-producing systems......Page 447 8.6.2 Photobioreactors......Page 452 Acknowledgments......Page 453 References......Page 456 9.1 Introduction......Page 474 9.1.1 Definitions......Page 475 9.2.1 The importance of renewables......Page 476 9.2.3 Future trends......Page 483 9.2.4 Discounting carbon sinks......Page 486 9.2.4 The contribution of BECs to CO2 abatement......Page 488 9.2.5 Available resources for biomass and energy cropping......Page 489 9.2.6 The policy framework for energy cropping......Page 490 United Kingdom......Page 491 United States of America......Page 493 Brazil......Page 494 Sweden......Page 495 9.3.1 Chemical composition, energy and moisture content......Page 496 9.3.2 Conversion routes, current species used and expected yields......Page 497 Pyrolysis......Page 499 Biodiesel......Page 500 9.3.4 Questions of scale......Page 502 9.4.1 Photosynthesis—an inefficient process......Page 505 9.4.2 Striving for the ideal energy crop......Page 506 9.4.3 Photosynthetic pathways......Page 507 9.4.4 Radiation interception......Page 509 9.4.5 Canopy structure and duration......Page 511 9.4.6 Pests and pathogens......Page 512 9.4.7 Radiation use efficiency......Page 513 9.4.8 Plant–water relations......Page 518 9.4.10 Crop density......Page 519 9.4.11 Nutrient supply, nutrient status and soils......Page 521 9.4.12 Potential sites for energy cropping......Page 522 9.4.13 Soil preparation, crop planting, harvest and storage......Page 523 9.4.14 Energy balance......Page 524 9.5 Conclusions......Page 525 References......Page 531 10 The production of biofuels by thermal chemical processing of biomass A. V. Bridgwater and K. Maniatis......Page 542 10.1 Introduction......Page 543 10.1.1 Biological conversion summary......Page 544 10.1.2 Biomass resources......Page 547 10.2 Thermal conversion processes......Page 548 10.3 Gasification......Page 550 10.3.1 Downdraft—fixed bed reactors......Page 552 10.3.3 Bubbling fluid beds......Page 554 10.3.4 Circulating fluid beds......Page 556 10.3.5 Twin fluid beds......Page 557 10.3.6 Entrained beds......Page 558 10.3.7 Other reactors......Page 560 10.3.8 Pressurised gasification......Page 561 10.3.10 Integrated gasification combined cycles......Page 563 The Varnamo Plant is Sweden......Page 565 The ARBRE Plant in Yorkshire, UK......Page 566 10.3.11 Status of biomass gasification technology......Page 568 10.3.12 Fuel gas quality......Page 570 10.3.14 Hot gas clean-up for particulates......Page 572 10.3.15 Tar destruction......Page 573 Thermal cracking......Page 574 10.3.16 Tar removal......Page 575 10.3.17 Alkali metals......Page 576 10.3.19 Sulphur and chlorine......Page 577 10.3.20 Applications of product gas......Page 578 10.3.21 Electricity......Page 579 10.3.22 Transport fuels and other chemicals......Page 581 10.3.23 Summary......Page 582 10.4.1 Principles......Page 585 10.4.2 Bubbling fluid beds......Page 587 10.4.3 Circulating fluid bed and transported bed reactors......Page 589 10.4.4 Ablative pyrolysis......Page 591 10.4.6 Rotating cone......Page 593 10.4.7 Vacuum pyrolysis......Page 595 10.4.8 Heat transfer......Page 596 10.4.10 Char removal......Page 598 10.4.12 By-products......Page 599 10.4.13 Pyrolysis liquid—bio-oil......Page 600 10.4.14 Physical upgrading of bio-oil......Page 602 10.4.15 Chemical upgrading of bio-oil......Page 603 10.4.16 Application of bio-oil......Page 604 10.4.17 Overall fast pyrolysis system......Page 605 10.4.18 Status and summary......Page 606 10.5 Co-processing......Page 612 10.5.1 Challenges......Page 613 Charcoal from pyrolysis......Page 614 Gas fuel from pyrolysis and gasification......Page 615 The Lahti Plant......Page 616 The BioCoComb Plant in Zeltweg......Page 618 The AMER project......Page 619 10.6 Economics of thermal conversion systems for electricity production......Page 620 10.7 Barriers......Page 623 References......Page 625 11 Photosynthesis and the global carbon cycle D. Schimel......Page 634 11.1 The contemporary carbon cycle......Page 635 11.2 The modern carbon budget......Page 636 11.3 Photosynthesis as a carbon storage process......Page 639 11.4 Assimilation and respiration......Page 640 11.5 CO2 fertilisation......Page 642 11.6 Global warming and the carbon cycle......Page 643 Acknowledgements......Page 644 References......Page 645 12.1 Potential carbon management activities in the forestry and land use sectors......Page 650 12.1.1 Afforestation /reforestation......Page 652 12.1.2 Management and conservation of existing forests......Page 654 12.1.3 Substitution of fossil fuels and materials......Page 655 12.1.4 Other land use activities......Page 656 12.2 Forests and land use in the Kyoto Protocol......Page 657 12.3 Climate change management, carbon assets and liabilities......Page 660 12.4 Experiences and issues arising from land use and forestry projects designed to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions......Page 661 12.5 Conclusions......Page 664 References......Page 665 13.1 Introduction......Page 670 13.1.1 Microbial biotechnology......Page 671 13.1.2 Agricultural biotechnology......Page 672 13.2.1 Scientific developments......Page 673 13.2.2 Population growth and agriculture......Page 676 13.2.3 Global petroleum resources......Page 680 13.2.4 The opportunity......Page 683 13.3 Agbiotech: current applications......Page 684 13.3.1 Marker-assisted selection......Page 685 13.3.2 Transgenic crops: a restricted but growing list of target species......Page 686 13.3.3 Engineering input traits......Page 687 13.3.4 Engineering output traits......Page 693 13.4 Transgenic crops: the future......Page 704 13.4.1 Complex traits......Page 705 13.4.2 Environmental stress......Page 707 13.4.3 Pathway engineering......Page 711 13.4.4 Protein engineering......Page 712 13.4.5 Molecular pharming: the expression of high-value products......Page 714 13.4.6 Transgenic tree crops......Page 720 13.4.7 Microalgae......Page 723 13.5.1 Scientific issues......Page 724 13.5.2 Management and segregation of transgenic crops......Page 730 13.5.3 Addressing public concerns......Page 733 13.6 Developing new crops......Page 736 13.6.1 Challenges for new crops......Page 738 13.6.2 Using biotechnology to develop new crops......Page 739 13.7 Future directions for agricultural biotechnology......Page 740 13.7.1 Commercial background......Page 741 13.7.2 Public versus private research......Page 742 13.7.3 The political dimension......Page 743 13.7.4 Economics: problems of scale and value......Page 745 13.8 Conclusions......Page 747 References......Page 749 I Conversion Factors......Page 762 II Acronyms and Abbreviations......Page 763 III List of Symbols......Page 766 Index......Page 768 Green plants and photosynthetic organisms are the Earth's natural photoconverters of solar energy. In future, biomass and bioenergy will become increasingly significant energy sources, making a contribution both to carbon dioxide abatement and to the security, diversity and sustainability of global energy supplies. In this book, experts provide a series of authoritative articles on the intricate mechanisms of photosynthesis, and on the potential for using and improving plants and trees to provide fuels, electricity and phytoproducts for the benefit of man.