Mobile Communication and Online Falsehoods in Asia: Trends, Impact and Practice (Mobile Communication in Asia: Local Insights, Global Implications)

This book focuses on developments and trends pertaining to online falsehoods and mobile instant messaging services (MIMS), the impact of online falsehoods transmitted via MIMS, and practice and intervention. As the reliance on mobile devices for news seeking and information sharing continues to grow, the spread of online falsehoods on MIMS is a problem that confounds academics, practitioners, and policymakers. Recent developments in countries such as Brazil and India demonstrate how MIMS facilitate the spread of online falsehoods. Given that a number of non-academic and non-governmental institutions in the region are doing important work in countering the influence of online falsehoods, this book also includes contributions by practitioners who design initiatives and programmes in this area. The book is a timely contribution in addressing the distinct issues of online falsehoods in a large, technophilic region such as Asia, grappling with problems of online falsehoods on so many fronts, including ideological extremism, political opportunism, cyberscams, political activism, digitalised learning, geopolitical tensions, and more. Relevant to researchers and policymakers, this book provides a timely and critical analysis of both research and practice conducted in the Asian context by scholars hailing from a range of disciplines such media studies, political communication, cultural studies, and cognitive science. Acknowledgements Contents Editor and Contributors 1 Complexities in Falsehoods Management and Implications for Research and Practice 1.1 The State of Play Today 1.2 Cause for Action and Retaliation 1.3 Community, Confidentiality and Content: Affordances or Pitfalls? 1.4 Challenges for Practice and Research 1.5 Structure of the Book References Part I Trends in the Proliferation of Online Falsehoods and MIMS 2 COVID-19 Falsehoods on WhatsApp: Challenges and Opportunities in Indonesia 2.1 Background 2.2 Methodology 2.3 Findings and Discussion 2.3.1 Respondents’ Demographics 2.3.2 Media and Information Access Relating to COVID-19 2.3.3 Verification of Falsehoods 2.3.4 Role of Government in Combating COVID-19 Falsehoods 2.4 Conclusion References 3 The Unbelieving Minority: Singapore’s Anti-Falsehood Law and Vaccine Scepticism 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Literature Review 3.2.1 An “Infodemic” and Vaccine Hesitancy 3.3 Anti-Fake News Legislation 3.4 False Information on Social Media 3.5 Factors that Influence the Effects of False Information 3.6 Research Questions 3.7 Method 3.8 Findings and Discussion 3.8.1 Profile of the Groups and Information-Seeking Behaviour 3.9 Why Telegram? 3.9.1 Privacy and No Censorship 3.9.2 Meeting Like-minded Others in Real Time 3.10 Implications for POFMA and Its Efficacy 3.11 Conclusion References 4 Orders of Discourse and the Ecosystem of Rumour Management on WeChat 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Literature Review 4.2.1 Rumour as Information Disorder in Chinese Digital Space 4.2.2 Foucault’s Theory on the Order of Discourse 4.2.3 Online Content Regulation in China 4.3 Methodology 4.4 Results 4.4.1 The Multiplicity of Rumour Management Actors 4.4.2 The Discursive Structure of Rumour Debunking Texts 4.4.3 The Stretched Definition of Rumour 4.5 Discussion and Conclusion References 5 Understanding the Flow of Online Information and Misinformation in the Australian Chinese Diaspora 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The Two Landscapes of Geopolitics and Social Media 5.2.1 Geopolitical Backdrop 5.2.2 Platform Policy and Politics 5.3 The Challenges—By Design 5.3.1 Flying Under the Radar 5.3.2 Semi-Closed and Censored 5.3.3 Undermining the Diversity of Political Discussions—Ramifications for Australia 5.3.4 Search Constraints and Unlimited Forwarding Pose Issues 5.4 Overt/Covert Influence—A Closer Look 5.4.1 Hong Kong–Australia Reverberations 5.4.2 State Media and Negative Framing of Australia 5.4.3 Anti-CCP Discourse 5.5 Conclusion References 6 The Battle between the Thai Government and Thai Netizens Over Mis/Disinformation During COVID-19 6.1 Overview of Online Falsehoods in Thailand During COVID-19 6.2 Three Waves of “COVID-19 Fake News” as Flagged by Fact Checkers 6.3 Top-Down Control During the Pandemic 6.4 False Information on MIMS 6.5 Conclusion References Part II Impact of Online Falsehoods Transmitted via MIMS 7 Users, Technologies and Regulations: A Sociotechnical Analysis of False Information on MIMS in Asia 7.1 Three Gaps in the Literature: Geography, Platforms and Scale 7.1.1 From Micro to Macro Through a Sociotechnical Lens 7.2 “Mobile-first, Mobile-centric” News Information Consumption and Invisible Illiteracies 7.3 The Rise of Super-Apps in Asia 7.3.1 The Rise of Super-Apps and the Hyper-Personalisation of False Information 7.3.2 The Rise of Super-Apps and Their Increasing Embeddedness in People’s Lives 7.4 Legitimacy and Practicality Challenges in Legislative Approaches 7.5 Conclusion References 8 No “Me” in Misinformation: The Role of Social Groups in the Spread of, and Fight Against, Fake News 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Literature Review 8.2.1 Fake News and Messaging Apps 8.2.2 Messaging Apps and Fact Checking 8.2.3 Source Considerations on WhatsApp 8.2.4 Shifting from Personal to Group Communication 8.3 Method 8.3.1 Participants 8.3.2 Study Procedure 8.3.3 Manipulation and Dependent Variables 8.3.4 Covariates 8.4 Study Results 8.5 Moving Forward References 9 Understanding the Nature of Misinformation on Publicly Accessible Messaging Platforms: The Case of Ivermectin in Singapore 9.1 Background 9.2 COVID-19 Misinformation Costs Lives 9.2.1 COVID-19 Misinformation in Singapore 9.3 Text Analysis as a Tool for Detecting Misinformation 9.4 Method 9.4.1 Text Analysis 9.5 Topics of Vaccine Misinformation in SG COVID LA KOPI 9.6 Locating the Dissemination of Vaccine Misinformation and Emotional Responses 9.6.1 Using Text Similarity to Identify Peak Engagement with Misinformation 9.6.2 Affirmation and Non-responses Were Most Common Reactions to Ivermectin Misinformation 9.7 Study Limitations 9.8 Discussion References 10 Did You Hear? Rumour Communication via Instant Messaging Apps and Its Impact on Affective Polarisation 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Affective Polarisation: Identity, and Attitude Reinforcement 10.2.1 MIMS and Affective Polarisation 10.3 Polarising Effects of Political Rumours 10.4 Context 10.5 Method 10.6 Measures 10.6.1 Affective Polarisation 10.6.2 Rumour Belief 10.6.3 Partisanship 10.6.4 WhatsApp and Facebook Usage 10.7 Results 10.7.1 Predictors of Affective Polarisation 10.7.2 Predictors of Party-Consistent Rumour Belief 10.7.3 Rumour Belief as a Mediator of Affective Polarisation 10.7.4 Feelings Towards Political Ingroup 10.7.5 Feelings Towards Political Outgroup 10.8 Discussion References 11 Fact Checking Chatbot: A Misinformation Intervention for Instant Messaging Apps and an Analysis of Trust in the Fact Checkers 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Related Work 11.2.1 Misinformation on MIMS 11.2.2 Interventions on MIMS 11.2.3 Trust in Fact Checkers 11.3 Method 11.3.1 Inquiry 11.3.2 Participants 11.3.3 Experiment 11.4 Results 11.4.1 Statistical Analysis 11.4.2 Accuracy of the Perceived Veracity 11.4.3 Adherence to the Fact Check Label 11.4.4 Performance in Perceived Veracity 11.4.5 Post-Experiment Survey 11.5 Discussion 11.5.1 Top Fact Checker 11.5.2 Contradiction Between Attitude and Behaviour 11.5.3 Efficacy vs. Blind Trust 11.6 Limitations and Future Work 11.6.1 Measurement and Sample 11.6.2 Understanding the Contradiction 11.6.3 Beyond Textual Misinformation and Fact Checks 11.7 Conclusion References Part III Practice and Interventions 12 Regulating Online Pandemic Falsehoods: Practices and Interventions in Southeast Asia 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Online Pandemic Falsehoods in Southeast Asia 12.3 Regulating Online Pandemic Falsehoods 12.4 Pandemic Backsliding in Southeast Asia 12.5 Pandemic Surveillance and Censorship 12.6 Case Studies 12.6.1 Cambodia 12.6.2 Thailand 12.6.3 Indonesia 12.6.4 Malaysia 12.7 Conclusion Appendix 12.1 References 13 Countering Fake News on WhatsApp in Malaysia: Current Practices, Future Initiatives and Challenges Ahead 13.1 Introduction 13.2 WhatsApp and False Information in Malaysia 13.3 Current Practices to Curb False Information 13.4 Future Initiatives 13.5 Conclusion References 14 Towards an Effective Response Strategy for Information Harms on Mobile Instant Messaging Services 14.1 Introduction 14.2 The Need for Research and Action on MIMS 14.3 Research Approaches to MIMS 14.3.1 The Computational Approach 14.3.2 The Ethnographic Approach 14.4 The Law and MIMS 14.4.1 Contemporary Concerns Around MIMS in India 14.4.2 The Surveillance Legacy in India 14.5 The Two Lineages of MIMS 14.5.1 MIMS as Extension of Mobile Messaging Services 14.5.2 Mobile as Extension of Instant Messaging Services 14.5.3 An In-Situ Understanding of MIMS 14.6 Conclusion: Responding to the Information Disorder on MIMS 14.6.1 Law Enforcement 14.6.2 Civic Action References 15 Misinformation in Open and Closed Online Platforms: Impacts and Countermeasures 15.1 Misinformation in Open and Closed Online Platforms: Impacts and Countermeasures 15.2 Why People Are Susceptible to Misinformation 15.3 Cognitive Basis of Misinformation Belief 15.3.1 The Deficit Hypothesis 15.3.2 Lack of Analytic Reasoning 15.4 Motivational Basis of Misinformation Belief 15.4.1 Worldview Effects 15.4.2 Group Identity 15.5 The Continued Influence of Corrected Misinformation 15.5.1 Cognitive Basis of the CIE 15.5.2 Motivational and Social Basis of the CIE 15.6 How the Internet Facilitates the Spread of (Mis)Information and Misinformed Beliefs 15.7 Overview of Open Communication Platforms 15.7.1 How Open Communication Networks Can Facilitate Misinformation Spread and Belief 15.7.2 Countering Misinformation on Open Communication Networks 15.8 Overview of Closed Communication Platforms 15.8.1 How Closed Communication Networks Can Facilitate Misinformation Spread and Belief 15.8.2 Countering Misinformation on Closed Communication Networks 15.9 Recommendations and Future Directions 15.9.1 Conclusion References 16 Turning MIMS from a Curse into a Blessing: Tripartite Partnership for Tackling Online False Information in Taiwan 16.1 Introduction: False Information in Taiwan 16.2 Key Concepts and Definitions 16.3 Cross-Sector Cooperation to Counter False Information 16.4 The Formation of a Tripartite Partnership 16.4.1 Government and Civil Society 16.4.2 Collective Self-Regulation by Social Media Platforms 16.5 Turning MIMS from a Curse into a Blessing 16.5.1 LINE: The Most Popular MIMS in Taiwan 16.5.2 Holding LINE Accountable for False Information 16.5.3 The 2020 Taiwan Presidential Election 16.5.4 The COVID-19 Pandemic 16.6 Conclusion Appendix 16.1 “Taiwan Code of Practice on Disinformation” (Excerpt) References Index