Mining Law and Economic Policy : Critical Perspectives and Challenges for Mining in Africa

"This book explores the impacts of current mining licensing regimes in Africa and how they influence sustainable development principles. International law and conventions on mining are used as a lens to examine a regionalized perspective of the history of mining law and customary land law. Alternative approaches are then suggested, through a comparative and sovereignty-based study of mining laws and policies, to see how the challenge of uneven development can be combatted using minerals. This book aims to highlight how mineral possessions can transform communities if the economic policies, customary law structures, and the geopolitical landscape guarantee inclusivity and equal partnerships. It will be relevant to researchers and policymakers interested in mineral economics, mining law, and African economies. Akua Debrah is a Visiting Lecturer at the Wits Mining Institute, University of the Witwatersrand. Hudson Mtegha is a Visiting Adjunct Professor at the School of Mining Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand." Preface 5 Contents 7 Notes on Contributors 9 Abbreviations 11 List of Tables 14 Chapter 1: Introduction 15 1.1 Introduction 16 1.2 Origins and Legacies of Mining and Land Ownership in Africa: An Overview 18 1.3 Mining Laws and Permanent Sovereignty Over Natural Resources 21 1.4 Sustainable Development and Who Should Benefit from Minerals 22 1.5 Objectives and Structure of the Book 25 1.6 Conclusion 28 References 28 Part I: Mining Laws and Policies in Selected African Countries 30 Chapter 2: Democratic Republic of Congo 31 2.1 Introduction 32 2.2 DRC’s Mineral Resources 33 2.3 Colonization and the Extension of Western Sovereignty over Mineral Resources in the DRC 33 2.4 Post-Independence Mining Legislation, Community Exclusion & International Law 35 2.5 Post-War Mining Legislation and Mining Communities 38 2.5.1 The Revised 2018 Mining Code Versus Benefits for Mining Communities 39 2.5.2 Increase of State Revenues, Local Content and Environmental Protection 40 2.5.3 Direct Contribution of the Mining Code to Mining Communities, Consultation, Participation and Development 41 2.5.3.1 Le Cahier des Charges / Specified Requirements 41 2.5.3.2 Mining Royalties 42 2.5.3.3 Fund for Community Development & Consultation 42 2.6 Critique of the 2018 Mining Code 43 2.6.1 Local Authorities’ Unpreparedness to Manage Funds 43 2.6.2 Absence of Free, Prior and Informed Consent 44 2.6.3 Poor Enforcement of the Mining Code 44 2.7 Conclusion 45 References 46 Chapter 3: Ghana 48 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 Land and Economic Organisation in the Pre-Colonial Era Gold Coast 51 3.3 Mineral Ownership in the Gold Coast 52 3.4 Mineral Ownership in Post-Independence Ghana 54 3.4.1 Influence of the Boateng Commission 54 3.4.2 Legislative Development of Ownership in Minerals 55 3.4.3 Permanent Sovereignty Over Natural Resources 56 3.4.4 Constitutional Development of Ownership in Minerals 57 3.5 Implications of Entrusting the President with Ownership and Management of Mineral Resources 59 3.5.1 Accountability 59 3.5.2 A Constitutional Question 60 3.5.3 A Higher Sense of Trust 61 3.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 63 References 65 Laws 67 Case Laws 68 Chapter 4: Mozambique 69 4.1 Introduction 70 4.2 Mining Laws in Pre- and Post-Independence Mozambique 71 4.3 The Constitution and Mineral Resource Policy 73 4.4 The Legal Framework for Mining Activities 76 4.5 The Protection of the Environment and the Public Interest 79 4.6 Coal Mining in Mozambique 80 4.7 Conclusion 80 References 82 Legal Texts 82 Constitutions 82 Policies 82 Laws 82 Decrees 83 Chapter 5: South Africa I 84 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Historical Perspective of the Principle of Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources 85 5.2.1 The Economic Sovereignty of States 86 5.3 The Evolution of the Principle of Permanent Sovereignty and the Right to Self-Determination 87 5.4 The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous peoples 90 5.5 Application of the Principle of Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources and its Implications for Mineral Development in South Africa 91 5.5.1 Case Study: South African Indigenous Communities 93 5.6 Right to Engage in Meaningful Consultations 97 5.7 Conclusions 98 References 99 Books 99 Journal 99 Internet Sources 100 Other Source 100 Case Law 100 Chapter 6: South Africa II 101 6.1 Introduction 102 6.2 Defining Mining Community: A Multifaceted Concept 103 6.3 Regulatory Framework Relating to Mining Communities 104 6.3.1 Regulatory Framework Before the Democratic Era 105 6.3.2 Regulatory Framework During the Democratic Era 106 6.4 Selected Judgements Relating to Mining Communities 111 6.5 Categorization of South African Mining Communities and Case Studies 113 6.5.1 Category One Communities 113 6.5.1.1 Royal Bafokeng Nation 113 6.5.2 Category Two Communities 114 6.5.2.1 Mapela Community 114 6.5.3 Category Three Communities 116 6.5.3.1 Merafong Community 116 6.6 Concluding Thoughts 117 References 119 Chapter 7: South Africa III 123 7.1 Introduction 124 7.2 Transformation of South Africa’s Mining Industry 128 7.3 Community Relations with Government 133 7.3.1 The Xolobeni 133 7.3.2 The Richtersveld Community 134 7.3.3 The Royal Bafokeng Nation 135 7.4 Lessons from the Experiences of the Communities 136 7.5 Conclusion and the Way Forward 137 References 138 General 138 Government Documents 141 Legislation 141 Thesis 141 Cases 142 Part II: Regional Approaches to Mining, Sustainable Development and Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources 143 Chapter 8: Regional Perspectives and the Africa Mining Vision 144 8.1 Introduction 145 8.2 Background to AMV and Country Mining Vision (CMV) 146 8.2.1 Elements of the AMV 147 8.3 Adoption and Implementation: Country Perspective and Challenges 149 8.3.1 Approach Adopted by Some African Countries 151 8.3.2 Constraints for the Realization of the AMV 152 8.4 Conclusion and Recommendation 154 8.4.1 Findings of this Chapter 154 8.4.2 Recommendations 156 References 157 Chapter 9: Conclusions 158 9.1 Conclusions 159 References 163 Index 164