Military Laser Technology and Systems

This new resource provides an insight into the physical principles of the device technology that underpins many laser-based military systems in one form or another. From this knowledge a deeper understanding of the fundamental requirements and the potential performance, as well as limitations of such systems may be assessed, given the appropriate operational parameters.Engineers and students are provided with practical advice on how to evaluate laser devices and systems, operate them safely, and train with them.;Intro -- Military Laser Technology and Systems -- Contents -- Preface -- Part I Fundamentals -- Chapter 1 Military Laser Technology and Systems -- Chapter 2 Laser Action, Components and Definition of Terms -- Chapter 3 Laser Devices for Military Applications -- Chapter 4 Beam-Director Technology -- Chapter 5 Laser-Beam Propagation -- Chapter 6 Radiometry, Testing and Evaluation of Laser Systems -- Part II Military Systems -- Chapter 7 Laser Directed-Energy-Weapon Systems -- Chapter 8 Laser-Based Electro-Optical Countermeasures -- Chapter 9 Laser Directed-Infrared Countermeasures (Laser Jammers) -- Chapter 10 Laser Range Finders -- Chapter 11 Laser-Based Targeting -- Chapter 12 Laser Designation, Guidance and Fuzing -- Chapter 13 Laser-Based Remote Sensing -- Chapter 14 Free-Space Optical Communication Networks -- Chapter 15 Navigation Sensors -- Chapter 16 Other Emerging Military Applications -- Part III Safe Use, Education, and Training -- Chapter 17 Safe Use of Lasers and Legislation -- Chapter 18 Education and Training -- Appendix A The Development of Infrared Threat-Seeker Technology -- Appendix B Jammer Development -- Appendix C Missile-Warning System Technology -- Appendix D Rules of Thumb and Guidelines -- Acronyms -- Glossary -- About the Author -- Index -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Laser Development -- 1.3 Laser Systems Development -- 1.4 Aim of the Book -- References -- Selected Bibliography -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Laser Classification -- 2.3 Laser Action and Stimulated Emission -- 2.4 Oscillators and Amplifiers -- 2.5 Beam Generation and Its Control -- 2.6 Other Laser Components -- 2.7 Direct and Indirect Wavelength Generation -- 2.8 Performance Characteristic Terms and Parameters -- 2.9 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Military Laser-System Considerations. Artech House Applied Photonics Library Military Laser Technology and Systems 2 Contents 6 Preface 20 Part I Fundamentals 24 Chapter 1 Military Laser Technology and Systems 26 1.1 Introduction 26 1.2 Laser Development 29 1.3 Laser Systems Development 31 1.4 Aim of the Book 33 1.5 Organisation of the Book 33 1.5.1 Part I: Lasers and Fundamentals 34 1.5.2 Part II: Military Laser Systems 34 1.5.3 Part III: Safe Use, Education, and Training 35 References 35 Selected Bibliography 36 Chapter 2 Laser Action, Components and Definition of Terms 38 2.1 Introduction 38 2.2 Laser Classification 39 2.3 Laser Action and Stimulated Emission 40 2.3.1 Gain Medium, Pumping and Population Inversion 42 2.3.2 Laser Transitions 45 2.3.3 Laser Modes 46 2.3.4 Near- and Far-Field Beam Profiles 47 2.4 Oscillators and Amplifiers 48 2.5 Beam Generation and Its Control 52 2.5.1 Q-Switching 53 2.5.2 Cavity Dumping 56 2.5.3 Mode Locking 56 2.5.4 Gain Switching 57 2.5.5 Other Techniques 57 2.6 Other Laser Components 58 2.6.1 Mirrors 58 2.6.2 Coatings 58 2.6.3 Windows 59 2.7 Direct and Indirect Wavelength Generation 59 2.7.1 Optical Parametric Processes 63 2.7.2 Optical Parametric Oscillators 63 2.7.3 Phase Matching 65 2.7.4 Quasi Phase Matching 67 2.7.5 Harmonic Generation 68 2.7.6 Raman Conversion 69 2.7.7 Sum and Difference Frequency Mixing 70 2.7.8 Super-Continuum Generation 70 2.8 Performance Characteristic Terms and Parameters 70 2.8.1 Beam Quality and Divergence 71 2.8.2 Power 73 2.8.3 Radiant Intensity 73 2.8.4 Efficiency 73 2.8.5 Time to Full Brightness 74 2.8.6 Pulse Length 75 2.8.7 Pulse-Repetition Frequency 75 2.8.8 Duty Cycle and Duty Factor 75 2.8.9 Quantum Defect 76 2.8.10 Coherency and Speckle 77 2.8.11 Beam Stability 78 2.8.12 Line Width 78 2.8.13 Tuneability and Diversity 78 2.8.14 Polarisation 79 2.9 Summary 79 Selected Bibliography 80 Chapter 3 Laser Devices for Military Applications 82 3.1 Introduction 82 3.2 Military Laser-System Considerations 83 3.3 Laser-System Specifications and Requirements Definition 85 3.4 Solid-State Lasers 87 3.4.1 Future Challenges for Solid-State Devices 90 3.4.2 Rod Lasers 91 3.4.3 Slab Lasers 92 3.4.4 Slod Lasers 95 3.4.5 Plastic Lasers 96 3.4.6 Ceramic Lasers 98 3.5 Fibre Lasers 99 3.6 Disk Lasers 107 3.7 Vibronic Lasers 109 3.8 Liquid-Phase Lasers 111 3.9 Gas-Phase Lasers 115 3.9.1 Carbon Dioxide Lasers 118 3.9.2 Chemical Lasers 119 3.9.3 Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser 122 3.9.4 Explosively Pumped Iodine 124 3.9.5 Alkali Lasers 124 3.10 Semiconductor Lasers 125 3.10.1 Optically Pumped Semiconductor Lasers 130 3.10.2 Quantum-Cascade Laser 133 3.10.3 Interband-Cascade Lasers 136 3.10.4 W Structures 137 3.10.5 Strain-Engineered Diodes 137 3.10.6 Optically Pumped Semiconductor Disk Lasers 139 3.11 Free-Electron Laser 141 3.12 Cryogenic Lasers 143 3.13 Cannon Lasers 144 3.14 Super-Continuum Lasers 146 3.14.1 Super-Continuum Generation Using Photonic-Crystal Fibre and Planar Waveguides 147 3.14.2 Filament Ultraviolet Generation 147 3.15 Waveguide Lasers 149 3.16 Laser Performance Summary 151 3.17 Summary 151 Selected Bibliography 154 Chapter 4 Beam-Director Technology 158 4.1 Introduction 158 4.2 Design Considerations for Beam Directors 160 4.3 Generic Beam-Director/Pointer System for Directed-Energy Systems 162 4.3.1 Gimbal 164 4.3.2 Gimbal Functions 164 4.3.3 Blind Arcs (Blockages) 165 4.3.4 Optical-Train Design 165 4.4 Threat-Alerting System 166 4.5 Target-Tracking Subsystem 167 4.5.1 Target-Tracking Algorithms 169 4.5.2 Aim-Point Refinement Techniques 170 4.6 Pointing Element 170 4.7 Target Sight-Line Stabilisation 171 4.8 System Processor 172 4.8.1 Built-In Test and Boresighting Functions 174 4.9 Other Functions 175 4.9.1 Beam Control 175 4.9.2 Battle-Damage Assessment 176 4.10 Video Processor 177 4.11 Power Supply 178 4.12 Environmental Cover 178 4.13 Laser-Integration Requirements 180 4.14 Generic Beam-Director System for Laser-Based Sensing Systems 181 4.15 Advanced Beam-Steering Techniques 182 4.16 Summary 184 Selected Bibliography 186 Chapter 5 Laser-Beam Propagation 188 5.1 Introduction 188 5.2 The Earth’s Atmosphere 189 5.3 Beam-Attenuation Mechanisms 189 5.3.1 Absorption 190 5.3.2 Scattering 190 5.3.3 Extinction 192 5.4 Atmospheric Transmission 192 5.4.1 Weather 194 5.4.2 Humidity 194 5.4.3 Haze, Fog, Cloud and Rain 195 5.4.4 Summary of Transmission Effects on Beam Propagation 196 5.5 Models for Prediction of Transmission 197 5.5.1 Lowtran Model 198 5.5.2 Modtran Model 198 5.5.3 Fascode (Laser) Model 199 5.6 Turbulence 199 5.6.1 Turbulence Mitigation (Aperture Averaging) 203 5.6.2 Turbulence Mitigation (Adaptive Optics) 204 5.6.3 Turbulence Mitigation (Lucky Imaging) 205 5.6.4 Wind Effects 206 5.6.5 Summary of Turbulence and Wind Effects 207 5.7 Thermal Blooming 207 5.8 Ionisation 211 5.9 Nonlinear Propagation (Filaments) 211 5.10 Beam Propagation Through Wakes and Plumes 213 5.10.1 Propagation Characteristics 214 5.10.2 Impact on Installed Performance 214 5.11 Aero-Optical Effects 215 5.11.1 Aero-Optical Effects Around a Laser-DIRCM Transmitter 216 5.11.2 Summary 216 Selected Bibliography 218 Chapter 6 Radiometry, Testing and Evaluation of Laser Systems 220 6.1 Introduction 220 6.2 Radiometry 221 6.2.1 Photometry 223 6.2.2 Candela and Luminous Intensity 225 6.2.3 Radiant Flux and Luminous Flux 225 6.2.4 Radiant Intensity and Luminous Intensity 226 6.2.5 Irradiance and Illuminance 226 6.2.6 Radiance and Luminance 226 6.2.7 Radiant Exitance and Luminous Exitance 227 6.2.8 Radiant Exposure and Luminous Exposure 227 6.2.9 Radiant Energy and Luminous Energy 228 6.2.10 Total Radiant Flux and Total Luminous Flux 228 6.2.11 Radiance Temperature and Colour Temperature 228 6.3 System Considerations for Testing and Evaluation 229 6.3.1 Development Test and Evaluation (DT&E) 231 6.3.2 Operational Test and Evaluation (OT&E) 232 6.3.3 Technology Readiness Levels 232 6.4 Approaches to Testing and Evaluation 233 6.4.1 Introduction 233 6.4.2 Test and Evaluation Strategy 234 6.4.3 Test Design 235 6.4.4 Test Plan 235 6.4.5 Flight Trials 238 6.4.6 Documentation and Compliance 238 6.4.7 Simulation and Mathematical Modelling 238 6.4.8 Scale of Testing 239 6.4.9 Technology Insertion 240 6.4.10 Test Equipment 241 6.4.11 Laboratory Testing 245 6.4.12 Range and Field Trials 247 6.4.13 Platform Trials 249 6.5 Summary 251 Selected Bibliography 252 Part II Military Systems 254 Chapter 7 Laser Directed-Energy-Weapon Systems 256 7.1 Introduction 256 7.2 Historical Development 257 7.3 Military Utility 260 7.4 Summary of Potential Applications 262 7.5 Benefits of Laser Technology for Novel Systems 263 7.6 Laser-Beam Target-Interaction Effects 265 7.7 In-Band Damage Route 265 7.8 Out-of-Band Damage Route 267 7.9 Target-Defeat Techniques and Effects 267 7.9.1 In-Band Defeat 267 7.9.2 Out-of-Band Defeat 268 7.10 Basic Laser-Requirement Characteristics of In-Band Novel Weapon Systems 268 7.11 Basic Laser Characteristics for Out-of-Band Laser-Weapon Systems 270 7.12 Summary of Laser Requirements for Laser-Weapon Systems 271 7.13 Target Engagement 271 7.14 Laser-Weapon Subsystem Definition and Operation 273 7.15 Beam Control 276 7.16 Potential Laser Technology for an In-Band Novel Weapon System 277 7.16.1 Visible Band 277 7.16.2 Mid-Wave Infrared 277 7.16.3 Far-Infrared Waveband 277 7.17 Potential Laser Technology for an Out-of-Band Novel Weapon System 277 7.18 Tactical High-Power Laser-Weapon Mass and Volume Estimates 278 7.19 Tactical Laser-Weapon-System Considerations 279 7.20 Beam-Director Technology 280 7.21 Laser-Integration Requirements 280 7.22 System Processor 281 7.23 Battle-Damage Indication and Assessment 281 7.24 Concept of Operation 282 7.25 Future Requirements 282 7.25.1 Out-of-Band Systems 282 7.25.2 In-Band Systems 284 7.26 Myths 284 7.27 Summary 285 Selected Bibliography 286 Chapter 8 Laser-Based Electro-Optical Countermeasures 288 8.1 Introduction 288 8.2 Military Utility 291 8.3 System Operation 292 8.4 Defeat Mechanism 293 8.5 Pros and Cons of Laser-Based Dazzle Systems 294 8.6 System-Configuration Options 295 8.7 Subsystem Description and Functions 296 8.8 Target Cue 297 8.9 Laser-Source Characteristics for Electro-Optical Countermeasure (Dazzle) Systems 297 8.10 Summary of Laser-Source Requirements 298 8.10.1 Laser Source Options: Visible Band 298 8.10.2 Laser Source Options: Near-Infrared and Short-Wave Infrared Band 299 8.10.3 Laser Source Options: Mid-Wave Infrared Band 300 8.10.4 Laser Source Options: Far-Infrared Band 300 8.11 Beam Director 301 8.12 Laser-Integration Requirements 301 8.13 System Processor 301 8.14 Target Tracking and Stabilisation 302 8.15 Future Requirements 303 8.16 Summary 304 Selected Bibliography 305 Chapter 9 Laser Directed-Infrared Countermeasures (Laser Jammers) 306 9.1 Introduction 306 9.2 Military Utility 309 9.3 Historical development 309 9.3.1 Jammer Operation and Development 309 9.3.2 Laser-Source Technology 310 9.3.3 Defeat Mechanism 311 9.3.4 Jam-to-Signal Ratio 313 9.3.5 Concept of Operation 313 9.3.6 Principal Directed-Infrared Countermeasure Subsystems 316 9.3.7 Threat-Warning Subsystem 316 9.3.8 Beam Director 317 9.3.9 Directed-Infrared Countermeasure Processor 318 9.3.10 Infrared-Laser Requirements 318 9.3.11 Candidate Laser Technologies 319 9.3.12 Laser Integration 319 9.4 Open- and Closed-Loop Infrared-Countermeasure Systems 320 9.4.1 Open-Loop Systems 320 9.4.2 Closed-Loop IRCM (CLIRCM) 322 9.5 Future Requirements 324 9.6 Summary 326 Selected Bibliography 327 Chapter 10 Laser Range Finders 328 10.1 Introduction 329 10.2 Historical Development 330 10.3 Military Utility 331 10.4 System Operation 331 10.5 Laser-Performance Requirements 333 10.6 Subsystem Description and Function 335 10.7 Single-Photon Range Finding and Surveillance 335 10.7.1 Introduction 335 10.7.2 System Operation 336 10.7.3 Subsystem Description and Function 337 10.7.4 Laser Requirements 338 10.8 Future Requirements 338 10.9 Summary 339 Selected Bibliography 340 Chapter 11 Laser-Based Targeting 342 11.1 Introduction 342 11.2 Laser Targeting: Burst Illumination/Active Imaging 343 11.2.1 Introduction 343 11.2.2 Historical Development 344 11.2.3 Military Utility 345 11.2.4 System Operation 345 11.2.5 Laser Performance Requirements 347 11.2.6 Subsystem Description and Function 347 11.2.7 Future Requirements 351 11.2.8 Summary 351 11.3 Active Spectral Imaging 352 11.3.1 Introduction 353 11.3.2 Military Utility 354 11.3.3 System Configuration 355 11.3.4 Laser Performance Requirements 355 11.3.5 Subsystem Description and Function 356 11.3.6 Future Requirements 357 11.3.7 Summary 357 Selected Bibliography 358 Chapter 12 Laser Designation, Guidance and Fuzing 360 12.1 Introduction 360 12.2 Laser Designation 362 12.2.1 Introduction 362 12.2.2 Historical Development 363 12.2.3 Military Utility 364 12.2.4 System Operation 365 12.2.5 Laser-Performance Requirements 367 12.2.6 Subsystem Description and Function‐ 367 12.2.7 Future Requirements 369 12.2.8 Summary 370 12.3 Laser Beam-Rider Guidance 370 12.3.1 Introduction 370 12.3.2 Historical Development 371 12.3.3 Military Utility 372 12.3.4 Mode of Operation 372 12.3.5 The Weapon System: Firing Post 373 12.3.6 Guidance-Beam Generation 374 12.3.7 Laser Characteristics 375 12.3.8 Future Requirements 376 12.4 Laser Fuzing 376 12.4.1 Introduction 376 12.4.2 Mode of Operation 377 12.4.3 Principal Subsystems 379 12.4.4 Laser Characteristics 380 12.4.5 Future Requirements 380 12.4.6 Summary 381 Selected Bibliography 381 Chapter 13 Laser-Based Remote Sensing 382 13.1 Introduction 382 13.2 Introduction to Laser-Radar Systems 384 13.3 Historical Development 386 13.4 Military Utility 387 13.5 Basic Operation of a Laser-Radar System 389 13.6 Laser-Radar Subsystem Components 394 13.7 A Simple (Flash) Laser-Radar System 395 13.8 Dimensions of Laser-Radar Systems 396 13.9 Automatic Target Recognition 396 13.10 Laser-Radar Seeker 400 13.11 Bathymetry and Topographical Mapping 402 13.12 Obstacle Avoidance 406 13.13 Vibrometry 407 13.14 Acousto-Optic Mine Detection 410 13.15 Remote Detection of Hazardous Substances 411 13.15.1 Detection Using Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy 412 13.15.2 Remote-Sensing System Operation 413 13.5.3 Detection Using Raman Spectroscopy 415 13.5.4 Super-Continuum Techniques 421 13.5.5 Other Detection Techniques 421 13.16 Evolving Remote-Detection Techniques 422 13.16.1 Photo-Acoustic Spectroscopy 422 13.16.2 Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy 422 13.16.3 Stand-Off Terahertz Spectroscopy 424 13.16.4 Terahertz-Induced Fluorescence 425 13.17 Noncooperative Identification or Identification Friend or Foe 427 13.18 Future System Requirements 427 13.19 Summary 428 Selected Bibliography 428 Chapter 14 Free-Space Optical Communication Networks 430 14.1 Introduction 430 14.2 Basic Principles of Communications 431 14.2.1 Fundamentals 432 14.2.2 Military Utility 434 14.2.3 System Operation 437 14.3 Free-Space Laser-Based Communications 447 14.3.1 Point-to-Point Communication Operation 449 14.4 Short-Range Optical Communication System 450 14.4.1 Introduction 450 14.4.2 Short-Range Ultraviolet Nonline-of-Sight Communications 450 14.4.3 System Performance and Limitations 452 14.4.4 Laser Requirements 452 14.5 Retro-Reflective Optical Communications 452 14.5.1 Introduction 452 14.5.2 Military Utility 453 14.5.3 System Operation 453 14.5.4 Laser Requirements 454 14.6 Quantum Cryptography 454 14.6.1 Introduction 454 14.6.2 Military Utility 456 14.6.3 System Operation 456 14.6.4 Laser Requirements 456 14.6.5 Future Requirements 458 14.7 Summary 458 14.7.1 Future Requirements for Optical Communication Systems 459 Selected Bibliography 459 Chapter 15 Navigation Sensors 462 15.1 Introduction 462 15.2 Historical Development 463 15.3 Military Utility 464 15.4 Fundamental Principles 466 15.5 Ring-Laser Gyroscope 466 15.5.1 Description of the Ring-Laser Gyroscope 468 15.5.2 Lock-In Phenomenon 469 15.5.3 Alleviation of Lock-In 469 15.5.4 Sources of Error 470 15.5.5 Laser-Source Requirements 471 15.5.6 Ring-Laser Performance 471 15.6 Fibre-Optic Gyroscope 471 15.6.1 Principle of Operation 471 15.6.2 Description of the Fibre Gyroscope 472 15.6.3 Open-Loop Operation 473 15.6.4 Closed-Loop Operation 474 15.6.5 Summary of Laser Requirements 477 15.6.6 Summary of Performance 477 15.7 Integrated Fibre-Optic Gyroscope 477 15.7.1 Sources of Error 478 15.8 Other Optical Sensors 478 15.8.1 Laser Requirements 479 15.9 Applications 479 15.9.1 Artillery Pointing 479 15.10 Summary 480 15.10.1 Future Requirements 481 Selected Bibliography 481 Chapter 16 Other Emerging Military Applications 482 16.1 Laser Decoys 482 16.1.1 Introduction 482 16.1.2 System Operation 483 16.1.3 Laser Parameters 485 16.2 Direct-Fire Simulation 485 16.2.1 Introduction 485 16.2.2 Laser Requirements 485 16.2.3 MILES 486 16.2.4 System Operation 486 16.3 Search and Rescue 486 16.3.1 Introduction 486 16.3.2 Laser Requirements 487 16.4 Illumination Aid 487 16.4.1 Introduction 487 16.4.2 Laser Requirements 487 16.5 Small Arms Laser Sight 487 16.6 Power Beaming 487 16.6.1 Introduction 487 16.6.2 Military Utility 488 16.6.3 Principal Components 489 16.6.4 Concept of Operation 490 16.6.5 Laser Requirements 491 16.6.6 Summary 492 16.7 Laser Propulsion 492 16.8 Optical Air-Data Systems 493 16.8.1 Laser Requirements 494 16.9 Guided Bullets 494 16.9.1 Military Utility 495 16.9.2 Laser Requirements 495 16.10 Mine Detection 495 16.10.1 Military Utility 495 16.10.2 Laser Requirements 496 16.11 Laser Hydrophone 496 16.11.1 Military Utility 498 16.11.2 Principle of Operation 498 16.11.3 Laser Requirements 499 16.11.4 Summary 499 16.12 Summary of Novel Applications 500 Part III Safe Use, Education, and Training 502 Chapter 17 Safe Use of Lasers and Legislation 504 17.1 Introduction 504 17.2 Effective Laser Safety 507 17.2.1 The Laser-Safety Standards 508 17.2.2 Other International Safety Standards 509 17.3 Hazard Classification of Lasers 510 17.4 Maximum Permissible Exposure 512 17.4.1 Hazard Distances 512 17.4.2 Hazard Zones 513 17.4.3 Calculation of NOHD and EOHD 515 17.4.4 Laser Hazard Area Trace 516 17.4.5 Engineering Controls 516 17.5 Laser-Safety Officer 517 17.6 Visiting/Host Nation Interactions 517 17.7 Potential Hazards to Personnel 519 17.7.1 Eye Anatomy and Hazards 520 17.8 Hazards to Skin 525 17.9 Other Potential Hazards Presented by Lasers (Nonbeam Hazards) 526 17.10 Summary of Potential Hazards Presented by High-Power Laser Beams 527 17.11 Common Causes of Laser Incidents 527 17.12 Laser-Safety Training 529 17.13 Laser Safety in Practice 532 17.13.1 Safety-Design Considerations for Laser Research and Development Laboratory 532 17.14 Laboratory Testing 534 17.14.1 Engineering Controls 534 17.15 Safe-Operating Guidelines/Procedures 536 17.16 Field Testing and Trial Planning 537 17.17 Planning of Trials 538 17.18 Range Laser-Safety Officer 540 17.19 Range-Safety Officer 542 17.20 Flight Trials 543 17.20.1 Flight Trials Involving Ground-Based Laser Trials 543 17.20.2 Aircraft-Based Laser Trials 544 17.21 Some Additional Safety Thoughts 544 17.22 Summary 545 17.23 Legislation 545 17.23.1 Protocol 4 546 17.23.2 Summary 547 Selected Bibliography 549 Chapter 18 Education and Training 552 18.1 Introduction 552 18.2 Doctrine and Concepts 553 18.3 Training 554 18.4 Synthetic Environments 556 18.5 Role of Education 557 18.6 Training Design 558 18.7 Equipment Training 562 18.8 Simulated Training 563 18.9 Laser-Safety Training 564 18.10 Equipment for Training 565 18.11 Summary 566 Selected Bibliography 566 Appendix A The Development of Infrared Threat-Seeker Technology 568 A.1 Introduction 568 A.2 Generic Optical Seeker 569 A.3 Target-Tracking Techniques 569 A.4 Impact of Seeker-Technology Developments 572 A.5 Imaging-Seeker Technology 572 A.6 Summary 573 Appendix B Jammer Development 574 B.1 Introduction 574 B.2 Development of Jammer Techniques 574 B.3 Incoherent Sources for Infrared Jamming 576 B.3.1 Black Bodies 576 B.3.2 Arc-Lamp Technology 576 B.4 Coherent Sources for Infrared Jamming 578 B.5 Summary 579 Appendix C Missile-Warning System Technology 580 C.1 Introduction 580 C.2 Ultraviolet Missile-Warning System 583 C.3 Infrared Missile-Warning System 585 C.4 Two-Colour Missile-Warning Systems 586 C.5 Summary 587 Appendix D Rules of Thumb and Guidelines 590 D.1 Laser-Directed Energy-Applications 590 D.2 Lasers, Optics and Testing 591 D.3 Scattering and Propagation 594 D.4 Systems 595 D.5 Pointing and Tracking 596 D.5.1 Analysis 597 D.5.2 Human Eye 597 D.5.3 Detectors 598 D.5.4 Miscellany 599 Selected Bibliography 602 Acronyms 604 Glossary 606 About the Author 658 Index 660 Lasers;,Military,lasers;,Photonics;,Artech,House;,978-1-60807-778-6 Lasers,Military lasers,Photonics,Artech House,978-1-60807-778-6 Intro -- Military Laser Technology and Systems -- Contents -- Preface -- Part I Fundamentals -- Chapter 1 Military Laser Technology and Systems -- Chapter 2 Laser Action, Components and Definition of Terms -- Chapter 3 Laser Devices for Military Applications -- Chapter 4 Beam-Director Technology -- Chapter 5 Laser-Beam Propagation -- Chapter 6 Radiometry, Testing and Evaluation of Laser Systems -- Part II Military Systems -- Chapter 7 Laser Directed-Energy-Weapon Systems -- Chapter 8 Laser-Based Electro-Optical Countermeasures -- Chapter 9 Laser Directed-Infrared Countermeasures (Laser Jammers) -- Chapter 10 Laser Range Finders -- Chapter 11 Laser-Based Targeting -- Chapter 12 Laser Designation, Guidance and Fuzing -- Chapter 13 Laser-Based Remote Sensing -- Chapter 14 Free-Space Optical Communication Networks -- Chapter 15 Navigation Sensors -- Chapter 16 Other Emerging Military Applications -- Part III Safe Use, Education, and Training -- Chapter 17 Safe Use of Lasers and Legislation -- Chapter 18 Education and Training -- Appendix A The Development of Infrared Threat-Seeker Technology -- Appendix B Jammer Development -- Appendix C Missile-Warning System Technology -- Appendix D Rules of Thumb and Guidelines -- Acronyms -- Glossary -- About the Author -- Index -- 1.1 Introduction -- 1.2 Laser Development -- 1.3 Laser Systems Development -- 1.4 Aim of the Book -- References -- Selected Bibliography -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Laser Classification -- 2.3 Laser Action and Stimulated Emission -- 2.4 Oscillators and Amplifiers -- 2.5 Beam Generation and Its Control -- 2.6 Other Laser Components -- 2.7 Direct and Indirect Wavelength Generation -- 2.8 Performance Characteristic Terms and Parameters -- 2.9 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Military Laser-System Considerations. 3.3 Laser-System Specifications and Requirements Definition -- 3.4 Solid-State Lasers -- 3.5 Fibre Lasers -- 3.6 Disk Lasers -- 3.7 Vibronic Lasers -- 3.8 Liquid-Phase Lasers -- 3.9 Gas-Phase Lasers -- 3.10 Semiconductor Lasers -- 3.11 Free-Electron Laser -- 3.12 Cryogenic Lasers -- 3.13 Cannon Lasers -- 3.14 Super-Continuum Lasers -- 3.15 Waveguide Lasers -- 3.16 Laser Performance Summary -- 3.17 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 Design Considerations for Beam Directors -- 4.3 Generic Beam-Director/Pointer System for Directed-Energy Systems -- 4.4 Threat-Alerting System -- 4.5 Target-Tracking Subsystem -- 4.6 Pointing Element -- 4.7 Target Sight-Line Stabilisation -- 4.8 System Processor -- 4.9 Other Functions -- 4.10 Video Processor -- 4.11 Power Supply -- 4.12 Environmental Cover -- 4.13 Laser-Integration Requirements -- 4.14 Generic Beam-Director System for Laser-Based Sensing Systems -- 4.15 Advanced Beam-Steering Techniques -- 4.16 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 The Earth's Atmosphere -- 5.4 Atmospheric Transmission -- 5.5 Models for Prediction of Transmission -- 5.6 Turbulence -- 5.7 Thermal Blooming -- 5.8 Ionisation -- 5.9 Nonlinear Propagation (Filaments) -- 5.10 Beam Propagation Through Wakes and Plumes -- 5.11 Aero-Optical Effects -- Selected Bibliography -- 6.1 Introduction -- 6.2 Radiometry -- 6.3 System Considerations for Testing and Evaluation -- 6.4 Approaches to Testing and Evaluation -- 6.5 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Historical Development -- 7.3 Military Utility -- 7.4 Summary of Potential Applications -- 7.5 Benefits of Laser Technology for Novel Systems -- 7.6 Laser-Beam Target-Interaction Effects -- 7.7 In-Band Damage Route -- 7.8 Out-of-Band Damage Route -- 7.10 Basic Laser-Requirement Characteristics of In-Band Novel Weapon Systems. 7.11 Basic Laser Characteristics for Out-of-Band Laser-Weapon Systems -- 7.12 Summary of Laser Requirements for Laser-Weapon Systems -- 7.13 Target Engagement -- 7.14 Laser-Weapon Subsystem Definition and Operation -- 7.15 Beam Control -- 7.16 Potential Laser Technology for an In-Band Novel Weapon System -- 7.18 Tactical High-Power Laser-Weapon Mass and Volume Estimates -- 7.19 Tactical Laser-Weapon-System Considerations -- 7.20 Beam-Director Technology -- 7.22 System Processor -- 7.24 Concept of Operation -- 7.26 Myths -- 7.27 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Military Utility -- 8.3 System Operation -- 8.4 Defeat Mechanism -- 8.5 Pros and Cons of Laser-Based Dazzle Systems -- 8.6 System-Configuration Options -- 8.7 Subsystem Description and Functions -- 8.8 Target Cue -- 8.10 Summary of Laser-Source Requirements -- 8.11 Beam Director -- 8.14 Target Tracking and Stabilisation -- 8.15 Future Requirements -- 8.16 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Military Utility -- 9.4 Open- and Closed-Loop Infrared-Countermeasure Systems -- 9.6 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Historical Development -- 10.3 Military Utility -- 10.4 System Operation -- 10.5 Laser-Performance Requirements -- 10.6 Subsystem Description and Function -- 10.8 Future Requirements -- 10.9 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Laser Targeting: Burst Illumination/Active Imaging -- 11.3 Active Spectral Imaging -- Selected Bibliography -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Laser Designation -- 12.3 Laser Beam-Rider Guidance -- 12.4 Laser Fuzing -- Selected Bibliography -- 13.1 Introduction -- 13.2 Introduction to Laser-Radar Systems -- 13.3 Historical Development -- 13.4 Military Utility -- 13.5 Basic Operation of a Laser-Radar System -- 13.6 Laser-Radar Subsystem Components. 13.7 A Simple (Flash) Laser-Radar System -- 13.8 Dimensions of Laser-Radar Systems -- 13.9 Automatic Target Recognition -- 13.10 Laser-Radar Seeker -- 13.11 Bathymetry and Topographical Mapping -- 13.12 Obstacle Avoidance -- 13.13 Vibrometry -- 13.14 Acousto-Optic Mine Detection -- 13.15 Remote Detection of Hazardous Substances -- 13.16 Evolving Remote-Detection Techniques -- 13.17 Noncooperative Identification or Identification Friend or Foe -- 13.19 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Basic Principles of Communications -- 14.3 Free-Space Laser-Based Communications -- 14.4 Short-Range Optical Communication System -- 14.5 Retro-Reflective Optical Communications -- 14.6 Quantum Cryptography -- 14.7 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- 15.1 Introduction -- 15.2 Historical Development -- 15.3 Military Utility -- 15.4 Fundamental Principles -- 15.5 Ring-Laser Gyroscope -- 15.6 Fibre-Optic Gyroscope -- 15.7 Integrated Fibre-Optic Gyroscope -- 15.8 Other Optical Sensors -- 15.9 Applications -- 15.10 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- 16.1 Laser Decoys -- 16.2 Direct-Fire Simulation -- 16.3 Search and Rescue -- 16.4 Illumination Aid -- 16.7 Laser Propulsion -- 16.8 Optical Air-Data Systems -- 16.9 Guided Bullets -- 16.10 Mine Detection -- 16.11 Laser Hydrophone -- 16.12 Summary of Novel Applications -- 17.1 Introduction -- 17.2 Effective Laser Safety -- 17.3 Hazard Classification of Lasers -- 17.4 Maximum Permissible Exposure -- 17.5 Laser-Safety Officer -- 17.6 Visiting/Host Nation Interactions -- 17.7 Potential Hazards to Personnel -- 17.8 Hazards to Skin -- 17.9 Other Potential Hazards Presented by Lasers (Nonbeam Hazards) -- 17.10 Summary of Potential Hazards Presented by High-Power Laser Beams -- 17.11 Common Causes of Laser Incidents -- 17.12 Laser-Safety Training -- 17.13 Laser Safety in Practice -- 17.14 Laboratory Testing. 17.15 Safe-Operating Guidelines/Procedures -- 17.16 Field Testing and Trial Planning -- 17.17 Planning of Trials -- 17.18 Range Laser-Safety Officer -- 17.19 Range-Safety Officer -- 17.20 Flight Trials -- 17.21 Some Additional Safety Thoughts -- 17.22 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- 18.1 Introduction -- 18.2 Doctrine and Concepts -- 18.3 Training -- 18.4 Synthetic Environments -- 18.5 Role of Education -- 18.6 Training Design -- 18.7 Equipment Training -- 18.8 Simulated Training -- 18.9 Laser-Safety Training -- 18.10 Equipment for Training -- 18.11 Summary -- Selected Bibliography -- A.1 Introduction -- A.2 Generic Optical Seeker -- A.3 Target-Tracking Techniques -- A.4 Impact of Seeker-Technology Developments -- A.6 Summary -- B.1 Introduction -- B.2 Development of Jammer Techniques -- B.3 Incoherent Sources for Infrared Jamming -- B.4 Coherent Sources for Infrared Jamming -- B.5 Summary -- C.1 Introduction -- C.2 Ultraviolet Missile-Warning System -- C.3 Infrared Missile-Warning System -- C.4 Two-Colour Missile-Warning Systems -- C.5 Summary -- D.1 Laser-Directed Energy-Applications -- D.2 Lasers, Optics and Testing -- D.3 Scattering and Propagation -- D.4 Systems -- D.5 Pointing and Tracking -- Selected Bibliography -- 1.5.1 Part I: Lasers and Fundamentals -- 1.5.3 Part III: Safe Use, Education, and Training -- 2.3.1 Gain Medium, Pumping and Population Inversion -- 2.3.2 Laser Transitions -- 2.3.3 Laser Modes -- 2.3.4 Near- and Far-Field Beam Profiles -- 2.5.1 Q-Switching -- 2.5.2 Cavity Dumping -- 2.5.4 Gain Switching -- 2.6.1 Mirrors -- 2.6.3 Windows -- 2.7.1 Optical Parametric Processes -- 2.7.2 Optical Parametric Oscillators -- 2.7.3 Phase Matching -- 2.7.4 Quasi Phase Matching -- 2.7.5 Harmonic Generation -- 2.7.6 Raman Conversion -- 2.7.7 Sum and Difference Frequency Mixing -- 2.8.1 Beam Quality and Divergence -- 2.8.2 Power. 2.8.5 Time to Full Brightness. This new resource provides an insight into the physical principles of the device technology that underpins many laser-based military systems in one form or another. From this knowledge a deeper understanding of the fundamental requirements and the potential performance, as well as limitations of such systems may be assessed, given the appropriate operational parameters. Engineers and students are provided with practical advice on how to evaluate laser devices and systems, operate them safely, and train with them.