Microbiota and Biofertilizers, Vol 2 : Ecofriendly Tools for Reclamation of Degraded Soil Environs

The dependence of present farming on artificial input of “chemical fertilizers” has caused numerous ecological tribulations associated with global warming and soil contamination. Moreover, there is an essential requirement for realistic agricultural practices on a comprehensive level. Accordingly, biofertilizers including microbes have been recommended as feasible environmentally sound solutions for agricultural practices which not only are natural, and cost-effective but also preserve soil environs and important biota of agricultural land. In addition, it enhances the nutrient quantity of soils organically. Microbial biofertilizers promote plant growth by escalating proficient absorption of nutrients for the plants and by providing an excellent disease-fighting mechanism.Agriculture, the backbone of human sustenance, has been put under tremendous pressure by the ever-increasing human population. Although various modern agro-techniques boosted agricultural production, the excessive useof synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides have proven extremely detrimental to agriculture as well as to the environment in which it is carried out. Besides this some faulty agricultural practices like monoculture and defective irrigation, further complicate the scenario by eliminating biodiversity, increasing the efflux of nutrients into the water bodies, the formation of algal blooms, eutrophication, damaging the water quality and lowering fish stocks. Biofertilizers are the organic compounds applied to crops for their sustainable growth and the sustainability of the environment as the microbiota associated with biofertilizers interact with the soil, roots and seeds to enhance soil fertility. Application of biofertilizers results in the increased mineral and water uptake, root development, vegetative growth and nitrogen fixation besides liberating growth-promoting substances and minerals that help the maintenance of soil fertility. They further act as antagonists and play a pivotal role in neutralising soil-borne plant pathogens and thus, help in the bio-control of diseases. Application of biofertilizers instead of synthetic fertilizers could be a promising technique to raise agricultural productivity without degrading environmental quality. The present book focuses on the latest research approaches and updates from the microbiota and their applications in the agriculture industry. We believe this book addresses various challenges and shed lights on the possible future of the sustainable agricultural system. Foreword Preface Acknowledgements About the Book Contents Contributors About the Editors Chapter 1: Chemical Fertilizers and Their Impact on Soil Health 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Types of Chemical Fertilizers 1.3 Nitrogenous Fertilizer 1.3.1 Characteristics 1.4 Phosphorus Fertilizer 1.4.1 Characteristics 1.5 Potassium Fertilizer 1.5.1 Characteristics of Potassium Fertilizer 1.6 Advantages of Chemical Fertilizer 1.7 Drawbacks of Chemical Fertilizer 1.8 Important Nutrients in Fertilizers 1.9 Primary Nutrients 1.10 Secondary Nutrients 1.11 Micronutrients 1.12 Soil Health Concept 1.13 Positive Effects of Fertilizers 1.14 Impacts of Chemical Fertilizers on Soil Health 1.14.1 Soil Quality 1.14.2 Physicochemical Properties of Soil 1.14.3 Soil Enzyme Activity 1.14.4 Soil Compaction 1.14.5 Soil Acidification 1.14.6 Effect on Soil Biota 1.15 Soil Organic Matter (SOM) 1.16 Soil Salinity 1.17 Effect on Plants 1.18 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Microbial Bioremediation of Pesticides/Herbicides in Soil 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Merits of Pesticide Use 2.3 Risks Associated with Pesticide Use 2.4 Microbial Bioremediation 2.5 Factors Affecting Microorganism Bioremediation of Pesticide 2.6 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Pollution Cleaning Up Techniques 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Agricultural Pollution 3.3 Bioremediation Via Microbes 3.4 Microbial Processes Concerned with Bioremediation 3.4.1 Metal Microbe Mechanism of Interaction 3.5 Bioremediation Strategies 3.6 Phytoremediation 3.7 Phytoextraction 3.8 Phytostabilization 3.9 Rhizofiltration 3.10 Phytovolatilization 3.11 Aquatic Plant Species Studied for Phytoremediation 3.12 Pesticide Degradation by Bacteria 3.12.1 Role of Fungi 3.12.2 Role of Enzymes 3.13 Conclusion References Chapter 4: Role of Mushrooms in the Bioremediation of Soil 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Mushroom as a Significant Tool for Mycoremediation 4.3 Remediation Through Mushrooms 4.3.1 Biodegradation 4.3.2 Bioconversion 4.3.3 Biosorption 4.4 White-Rot Fungi Degradation System 4.5 Mycoremediation of Solid Wastes 4.6 Xenobiotic Organic Compounds (XOCs) and Mycoremediation 4.6.1 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 4.6.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 4.6.3 Halogenated Organic Compounds 4.6.4 Synthetic Dyes 4.6.5 Synthetic Pesticides 4.6.6 Heavy Metals 4.7 Role of Mycorrhizae in Remediation of Soil 4.8 Disadvantages of Mycoremediation 4.9 Conclusion and Future Aspects References Chapter 5: Microbial Degradation of Organic Constituents for Sustainable Development 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Some Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 5.3 Role of Microbes in the Degradation of Organic Substances 5.4 Microbial Degradation of Persistent Organic Pollutants 5.5 Microbial Degradation of Pesticides 5.6 Bacterial Degradations of Azo Dyes 5.7 Bioremediation of Heavy Metals 5.7.1 Biosorption 5.7.2 Bioleaching 5.7.3 Bioaccumulation 5.8 Conclusion References Chapter 6: Traditional Farming Practices and Its Consequences 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Background 6.3 Traditional Farming Practices 6.3.1 Agroforestry 6.3.2 Intercropping 6.3.3 Crop Rotation 6.3.4 Cover Cropping 6.3.5 Composting 6.3.6 Integrated Livestock Farming 6.3.7 Shifting Cultivation 6.4 Summary References Chapter 7: Soil Organic Matter and Its Impact on Soil Properties and Nutrient Status 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Effect of Soil Organic Matter on Soil Physical Properties 7.2.1 Soil Structure and Aggregate Stability 7.2.2 Soil Compaction 7.2.3 Soil Porosity 7.2.4 Soil Color 7.2.5 Water-Holding Capacity 7.2.6 Soil Thermal Properties 7.2.7 Soil Infiltration and Percolation 7.3 Soil Chemical Properties 7.3.1 Buffering Capacity and Soil pH 7.3.2 Cation Exchange Capacity 7.3.3 Adsorption and Complexation 7.4 Soil Biological Properties 7.4.1 Soil Organic Matter as a Driver of Biological Activity 7.4.2 Soil Organic Matter and Soil Microbial Population 7.4.3 Soil Enzyme Activity and Soil Organic Matter 7.4.4 Soil Organic Matter as Important Nutrient Source 7.5 Conclusion References Chapter 8: Sustainable Agricultural Practices 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Current Status 8.2.1 Prerequisite of Organic Farming 8.2.2 Sources of Plant Nutrients 8.3 Practices in Organic Farming 8.3.1 Composting 8.3.2 Vermicomposting 8.4 Biofertilizers 8.4.1 Rhizobium Inoculants 8.4.2 Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms 8.4.3 Mycorrhiza 8.5 Mulching, Green Manuring, and Cover Cropping 8.6 Crop Rotation 8.7 Multicropping 8.8 Intercropping 8.9 Effective Microorganisms 8.10 Biopesticides 8.11 Use of Agro-Industry Remains 8.11.1 Oil Cakes as Organic Manure 8.12 Naturally Occurring Mineral Amendments 8.13 Permanent Grass 8.14 Nutrient Management and Fruit Quality 8.15 Role of Soil Organic Matter 8.16 Organic Matter as Soil Structure Builder and Storehouse of Nutrients 8.17 Role of Organic Nutrient Sources in Enhancing Nutrient-Use Efficiency 8.18 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Values of Composting 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Historical Background and Perspectives 9.3 Types of Compost 9.3.1 Aerated Static Pile Composting 9.3.2 Windrow Composting 9.3.3 Vermicomposting 9.3.4 In-Vessel Composting 9.4 Compost: A Viable Tool for Sustainable Agriculture 9.5 Compost Application in Peri-urban Areas 9.6 Compost Versus Environmental and Soil Pollution 9.7 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Introduction to Microbiota and Biofertilizers 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Types of Biofertilizers 10.2.1 Nitrogen-Fixing Biofertilizer (NFB) 10.2.1.1 Free-Living 10.2.1.2 Symbiotic Associations 10.2.1.3 Associative Symbiotic (Without Endophytic Symbioses) 10.3 Phosphorus Biofertilizers 10.3.1 Phosphorus-Solubilizing Biofertilizers (PSB) 10.3.1.1 The Phosphorus-Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) 10.3.1.2 The Phosphorus-Solubilizing Fungi (PSF) 10.4 Phosphate-Mobilizing Biofertilizers (PMB) 10.5 Mycorrhizal Biofertilizers 10.5.1 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) 10.5.2 Ectomycorrhiza 10.5.3 Biofertilizers for Micronutrients 10.5.3.1 Zinc Solubilizers 10.5.3.2 Silicate Solubilizers 10.5.3.3 Plant Growth-Promoting Biofertilizer (PGPB) 10.6 Microbiota Used in Biofertilizers 10.6.1 Bacteria 10.6.2 Actinomycetes 10.6.3 Fungi 10.6.4 Algae 10.6.5 Protozoa 10.6.6 Viruses 10.6.7 Nematodes 10.7 Functions of Plant Microbiota as Biofertilizers 10.8 Factors Affecting Plant Microbiota 10.9 Mechanism of Action of Various Biofertilizers 10.10 Types of Biofertilizer Formulation 10.10.1 Peat Formulations 10.10.2 Liquid Formulations 10.10.3 Granules 10.10.4 Lyophilized Powders 10.11 Potential Significance of Beneficial Microbiome in Sustainable Agriculture 10.12 Important Uses of Biofertilizers 10.12.1 Biofertilizer Boosts Up Photosynthetic Activity 10.12.2 PGPR Reduces Contamination of Soil with Pesticides in a Sustainable Way 10.12.3 Variation in the PGPR Microbial Population Varies the Type of Amino Acid Secretion in the Plant 10.12.4 Role of Biofertilizers in Remediation of Heavy Metal Toxicity 10.12.5 Microbial Biofertilizers Exert a Significant Nematicidal Activity 10.12.6 Effect of Biofertilizers on Ecosystem 10.12.7 Effect of Biofertilizer in Soil Reclamation of Degraded Land Ecosystem 10.13 Benefits and Limitations of Biofertilizers 10.13.1 Benefits of Biological Fertilizers 10.13.2 Limitations of Biofertilizers 10.14 Future Perspectives of Biofertilizers 10.15 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Fungi and Their Potential as Biofertilizers 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Role of Microbial Technology in Sustainable Agriculture 11.3 Sustainable Production Through Biotechnological Tools 11.4 Fungi and Sustainable Agriculture 11.5 Ectomycorrhiza as Potential Biofertilizers 11.6 Potential of Mycorrhiza as Biofertilizer 11.7 Some Other Potential Biological Biofertilizers 11.8 Future of Fungal Biofertilizers 11.9 Future Perspectives 11.10 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Bacillus thuringiensis as a Biofertilizer and Plant Growth Promoter 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Bacillus thuringiensis 12.3 Phosphorus Availability in Soil 12.4 Phosphorus-Solubilizing Mechanisms 12.5 Biological Fertilizer 12.6 Plant Growth Promoter 12.7 Environmental Impact 12.8 Conclusions References Chapter 13: Cyanobacteria as Sustainable Microbiome for Agricultural Industries 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Evolutionary History 13.3 Cyanobacteria Under Extreme Conditions 13.4 Cyanobacteria as Potential Biofertilizers 13.4.1 Merits of Cyanobacterial Fertilizers 13.4.2 Demerits of Chemical Fertilizers 13.5 Cyanobacteria: As Biocontrol Agents 13.6 Cyanobacteria: As Plant Growth-Promoting Organisms 13.6.1 Auxin (IAA/Indole-3-Acetic Acid) 13.6.2 Gibberellin 13.6.3 Cytokinin 13.6.4 ABA (Abscisic Acid) 13.7 Sustainable Agriculture and Microbiome 13.8 Cyanobacteria: A Sustainable Tool for Sustainable Agriculture 13.9 Role of Cyanobacteria in Bioremediation 13.10 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Intercropping: A Substitute but Identical of Biofertilizers 14.1 Introduction 14.2 A Successful Intercropping System 14.3 Intercropping Facilitating Plant Nutrients 14.3.1 N2 Fixation and N Availability 14.4 P Availability and Acquisition 14.5 Pest Management 14.5.1 Weed Management 14.6 Insect Management 14.7 Soilborne Pathogen and Other Diseases 14.8 Intercropping and Soil Sickness 14.9 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Application of Phyllosphere Microbiota as Biofertilizers 15.1 Introduction 15.2 An Overview of Plant Microbiota in Agriculture 15.3 A Brief Outlook into Phyllosphere Microbial Diversity 15.4 Role of Phyllospheric Microbiota 15.4.1 Agro-based Functions 15.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects References Chapter 16: Biofertilizers: A Viable Tool for Future Organic Agriculture 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Biofertilizer Scope 16.3 Organic Agriculture History 16.4 Why Organic Farming? 16.4.1 Environmental Benefits 16.4.2 Economic Benefit and Profitability 16.4.3 Health Benefits 16.4.4 Organic Foods and Market 16.4.5 Organic Food for Sustainable Agriculture and Soil Fertility Management 16.5 Causes of Low Adoption of Organic Farming 16.6 Organic Agriculture and Biofertilizers 16.7 Potential Role of Biofertilizers in Agriculture 16.8 Advantages of Biofertilizers 16.9 Limitations of Biofertilizers References Index