Microalgae : Cultivation, Recovery of Compounds and Applications

__Microalgae: Cultivation, Recovery of Compounds and Applications__ supports the scientific community, professionals and enterprises that aspire to develop industrial and commercialized applications of microalgae cultivation. Topics covered include conventional and emerging cultivation and harvesting techniques of microalgae, design, transport phenomena models of microalgae growth in photobioreactors, and the catalytic conversion of microalgae. A significant focus of the book illustrates how marine algae can increase sustainability in industries like food, agriculture, biofuel and bioprocessing, among others. This book is a complete reference for food scientists, technologists and engineers working in the bioresource technology field. It will be of particular interest to academics and professionals working in the food industry, food processing, chemical engineering and biotechnology. Front Cover Microalgae: Cultivation, Recovery of Compounds and Applications Copyright Contents Contributors Chapter 1: Cultivation techniques 1. Introduction 1.1. The history of microalgae cultivation system 2. Laboratory cultivation techniques 3. Pilot cultivation techniques 3.1. Photobioreactors 3.1.1. Tubular photobioreactors 3.1.2. Flat-plate photobioreactors 3.1.3. Different designs of photobioreactors 3.1.4. Comparison of photobioreactors 3.2. Open ponds 3.2.1. Raceway ponds 3.2.2. Circular pond 3.2.3. Different designs of open systems 3.2.4. Comparison of open systems 3.3. Hybrid system 4. Industrial cultivation techniques 5. Dark fermentation-Fermenters 5.1. Heterotrophic microalgae strains 5.2. Heterotrophic cultivation 5.3. Fermenters 5.4. Heterotrophic cultivation costs 6. Lowering cultivation costs 6.1. Cultivation in wastewater 6.2. Cultivation for high-value products 7. Conclusions Statement References Chapter 2: Photobioreactor design for microalgae culture 1. Introduction 2. System hydrodynamics 2.1. Superficial liquid velocity and superficial gas velocity 2.2. Gas holdup 2.3. Flow regime 2.4. Mixing 2.5. Mass transfer 3. Parameters of environmental conditions in photobioreactors 3.1. Light 3.2. Temperature 3.3. pH 4. Measuring the photobioreactors performance 5. Bottlenecks to achieve expansion of photobioreactors 5.1. Power consumption 5.2. Material quality and investment cost 5.3. Scale-up 6. Advances in the design of photobioreactors 7. Conclusions Declaration of competing interest References Chapter 3: Transport phenomena models affecting microalgae growth 1. Introduction 2. Most important factors for the growth of a microalgae 2.1. Type of reactor 2.1.1. Open photobioreactors 2.1.2. Closed photobioreactors 2.2. Temperature 2.3. pH 2.4. Available nutrients 2.5. Light intensity 3. Irradiation models 3.1. Beer-Lambert law 3.2. Two-flux approximation 3.3. Radiative transfer equation (RTE) 3.3.1. Phase function: Meaning and numerical approximation 4. Growth models in microalgae 4.1. Important equations of biomass growth 4.1.1. Aiba model 4.1.2. Steele model 5. Momentum transfer models 5.1. Three phase model 5.2. Models applied in photobioreactors 6. Effect of shear stress on the growth of microalgae 7. Gas exchange and temperature effect 8. Energy consumption of a cultivation system 9. Conclusion References Chapter 4: Edible bio-oil production from microalgae and application of nano-technology 1. Introduction 2. Suitable microalgae candidates for edible bio-oil and nanotechnology application for higher growth of microalgal species 3. Microalgae pretreatment 3.1. Cell disruption methods of microalgae 3.1.1. Bead beating 3.1.2. High-pressure homogenization 3.1.3. Pressing 3.1.4. Microwave method 3.1.5. Chemical method 3.1.6. Enzymatic disruption 3.1.7. Ultrasonication 3.2. Selection of cell disruption methods 4. Methods of lipid extraction for edible bio-oil production 4.1. Supercritical fluid extraction 4.2. Solvent extraction method 4.2.1. Soxhlet extraction 4.2.2. Bligh and Dyer's method 4.3. Solvent-free extraction 5. Conversion processes of bio-oil from microalgae 5.1. Hydrothermal liquefaction 5.2. Slow and fast pyrolysis 5.3. Hydrothermal decarboxylation, hydrogenation, and others 6. Bio-oil recovery, distillation, and purification 6.1. Supercritical fluid separation 6.2. Liquid-liquid extraction 6.3. Membrane extraction 6.4. Precipitation 7. Integrated approaches 8. Environmental and socioeconomic impacts 9. Conclusions References Chapter 5: Catalytic conversion of microalgae oil to green hydrocarbon 1. Introduction 1.1. Background 1.1.1. Advantages and disadvantages 1.2. Catalyst and catalysis 1.2.1. Types of catalysts 1.3. Catalytic deoxygenation 1.3.1. Introduction 1.3.2. Reaction pathway 2. Catalytic deoxygenation of microalgae oil, DO 2.1. Hydrodeoxygenation process 2.2. Decarboxylation and decarbonylation process 2.3. Deactivation of catalyst 3. Conclusion and future prospect Acknowledgment References Chapter 6: Biofuel production 1. General introduction 2. Main biofuels produced from microalgae 2.1. Biodiesel 2.1.1. Production methods 2.1.2. Relevant characteristics Biodiesel FAME profile Biodiesel properties 2.2. Bioethanol 2.2.1. Production methods Cell disruption Saccharification processes Fermentation 2.2.2. Relevant characteristics 2.3. Biohydrogen 2.3.1. Production methods 2.3.2. Relevant characteristics 3. Other biofuels 3.1. Bio-oil 3.2. Flue gas 3.3. Biomethane 3.4. Bioelectricity 3.5. Biochar 3.6. Biogas 4. Influence of cultivation conditions 4.1. Algae metabolism 4.2. Algal cultivation systems 5. Commercial application of these technologies 6. Perspectives References Chapter 7: Emerging technologies for the clean recovery of antioxidants from microalgae 1. Introduction 2. Extraction technologies for antioxidant compounds 2.1. Conventional solvent extraction methods 3. Nonconventional extraction of bioactive compounds 3.1. Electrotechnologies 3.1.1. Pulsed electric field (PEF)-assisted extraction 3.1.2. Moderate electric field (MEF)-assisted extraction 3.1.3. High voltage electric discharges (HVED)-assisted extraction 3.2. Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) 3.3. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) 3.4. Microwave-assisted extraction 3.5. Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) 3.6. Cell disruption by high-pressure homogenization (HPH) 4. Conclusions and future perspectives References Chapter 8: Food applications 1. Introduction 2. Composition of microalgae 3. Extraction of microalgal high-value compounds for food applications 3.1. Microalgal carbohydrates 3.2. Microalgal lipids 3.3. Microalgal proteins and peptides 3.4. Microalgal pigments and carotenoids 4. The current market of microalgae and microalgal products 5. Legislation concerning microalgae as food 6. Future market and challenges of the use of microalgae as food Acknowledgments References Chapter 9: Microalgae as feed ingredients for livestock production and aquaculture 1. Introduction 2. Microalgae in ruminants 2.1. Feed intake 2.2. Rumen fermentation 2.3. Milk production and composition 2.4. Meat production and composition 3. Microalgae in swine 3.1. Piglets 3.2. Growing and finishing pigs 3.3. Sows and boars 4. Microalgae in poultry 4.1. Meat production 4.2. Egg production 5. Microalgae in rabbit 6. Microalgae in diets for relevant species for aquaculture 6.1. Microdiets for larvae 6.2. Feeds for juvenile 7. Conclusion and perspectives Acknowledgments References Chapter 10: Cosmetics applications 1. Introduction 2. The necessity of products environmentally sustainable in cosmetics 3. Skin structure 4. Property of algae in skincare products 4.1. Microalgae 4.2. Macroalgae 4.2.1. Chlorophyta (green algae) 4.2.2. Phaeophyta (brown seaweed) 4.2.3. Rhodophyta (red seaweed) 4.3. Cyanobacteria 5. Natural dyes 6. Moisturizer agents 7. Antiaging agents 8. Anticellulite agents 9. Sunscreen/UV filter compounds 9.1. Carotenoids 9.2. Mycosporine-like amino acids 9.3. Scytonemin 10. Skin-whitening agents 11. Haircare products: The benefits of algae 12. Formulation adjuvants 12.1. Thickening agents 12.2. Surfactants 12.3. Preservatives 13. Conclusions and perspectives References Chapter 11: Microalgal applications toward agricultural sustainability: Recent trends and future prospects 1. Introduction 2. Biofertilizers 2.1. Enhancing soil fertility 2.2. Nitrogen uptake by microalgae 2.3. Maintenance of soil structure and quality by microalgae 2.4. Stabilization of soil aggregates 2.5. Nutrient recycling in soil 2.5.1. Biomineralization by organic acids 2.5.2. Biomineralization by siderophores 3. Plant biostimulants 3.1. Types of plant biostimulants 3.1.1. Microbial PBs 3.1.2. Humic substances 3.1.3. Protein hydrolysates 3.1.4. Algal extracts 3.2. Cell lysis and extraction methods 3.3. Mode of application 3.4. Composition and mode of action 3.5. Application of microalgal PBs for crop yield improvement 4. Biopesticides 4.1. Microalgae as a sustainable source of biopesticides 4.2. Microalgae against plant pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and nematodes 4.3. Smart agriculture using algal nanoparticles for pest control 5. Symbiotic interaction of microalgae with higher plants 5.1. Cyanobacteria symbiotic relationship with higher plants 5.2. Artificial symbiosis ``Nature identical symbiosis ́ ́ for crop improvement 6. Microalgae in bioremediation and reclamation of degraded land 6.1. Use of Algae as soil conditioners 6.2. Microalgae as bioremediating agents 6.2.1. Reclamation of heavy metals contaminated sites 6.2.2. Reclamation of desert land by the production of polysaccharides 6.2.3. Reclamation of oil-contaminated site 6.2.4. Reclamation of alkaline and saline soil 7. Conclusion and future prospects References Web references Further reading Chapter 12: Microalgae biofilms for the treatment of wastewater 1. Introduction 2. Species of microalgae applicable for wastewater treatment 3. Microalgae biofilms 3.1. Definition 3.2. Characterization of microalgae biofilms 3.2.1. Chemical composition 3.2.2. Surface structures 3.3. Factors affecting microalgae biofilm formation and adhesion 3.3.1. Surface physicochemical properties of microalgae 3.3.2. Surface physicochemical properties of adhesion materials 3.3.3. Media composition 3.3.4. CO2 3.3.5. Light availability/intensity 3.3.6. The presence of indigenous microorganisms 4. Microalgae biofilm photobioreactors 4.1. Flat-plate microalgae biofilm photobioreactors 4.2. Rotating microalgae biofilm photobioreactor 4.3. Microalgae biofilm membrane photobioreactors 5. Kinetics of microalgae biofilm photobioreactors 5.1. Kinetics in flat-plate MBPBR 5.2. Kinetics in hybrid BMPBR 5.3. Kinetics in RABPBRs 6. Conclusion Acknowledgments References Chapter 13: Techno-economic assessment of microalgae for biofuel, chemical, and bioplastic 1. Introduction 2. Microalgae for biofuels 2.1. Cultivation of microalgae 2.1.1. Raceway or open ponds 2.1.2. Photobioreactor 2.2. Biomass harvesting 2.3. Oil extraction from microalgae 2.4. Oil conversion to biodiesel (transesterification) 2.5. TEA of biodiesel production from microalgae 2.5.1. Capital cost for microalgal biodiesel production 2.5.2. Operating cost for microalgal biodiesel production 3. Microalgae for chemicals 3.1. Polyunsaturated fatty acids 3.2. Bulk commodity chemicals 3.3. Pharmaceuticals 4. Microalgae for bioplastic 5. Microalgae: Integrated system 5.1. Integrated: Biodiesel from microalgae and jatropha 5.2. Integrated: Bioethanol, crude bio-oil, and biofertilizer 5.3. Integrated: Biodiesel and methane 5.4. Integrated: Wastewater treatment and biofuel production 5.5. Integrated: Bioethanol, biodiesel, and biogas 6. Conclusion References Index Back Cover Microalgae: Cultivation, Recovery of Compounds and Applications supports the scientific community, professionals and enterprises that aspire to develop industrial and commercialized applications of microalgae cultivation. Topics covered include conventional and emerging cultivation and harvesting techniques of microalgae, design, transport phenomena models of microalgae growth in photobioreactors, and the catalytic conversion of microalgae. A significant focus of the book illustrates how marine algae can increase sustainability in industries like food, agriculture, biofuel and bioprocessing, among others. This book is a complete reference for food scientists, technologists and engineers working in the bioresource technology field. It will be of particular interest to academics and professionals working in the food industry, food processing, chemical engineering and biotechnology. Explores emerging technologies for the clean recovery of antioxidants from microalgae Includes edible oil and biofuels production, functional food, cosmetics and animal feed applications Discusses microalgae use in sustainable agriculture and wastewater treatment Considers the techno-economic aspects of microalgae processing for biofuel, chemicals, pharmaceuticals and bioplastics