Methods of Cancer Diagnosis, Therapy, and Prognosis, Volume 7: General Overviews, Head and Neck Cancer and Thyroid Cancer

The seventh volume of the series, Methods of Cancer Diagnosis, Therapy, and Prognosis, discusses General Methods, Overviews, Head and Neck Cancer, and Thyroid Cancer. As in the other six volumes of the series, these subjects are discussed in detail. This fully illustrated volume presents overviews in Radio-immunotherapy in Cancer, Multidrug Resistance, Cancer Biomarkers, Role of Antibodies in Cancer Treatment, Classification of Cancer Stage Using Patient’s Immune System, Cancer Stem Cells, General methods discussed are, Translating In Vitro Cell Lines Result into Clinical Practice, Late Relapse of Germ Cell Malignancies, Role of RNA Interference in Understanding the Molecular Bases of Cancer, Incorporating Pharmacogenomics into Cancer Therapy, Tumor Angiogenesis in Cancer, Spindle Cell Oncocytoma of the Adenohypophysis, Chemotherapy-Induced Neurotoxicity, Disseminated Carcinoma of Unknown Primary Site, Unknown Lymphadenopathy. In part 2 of this volume Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Early Stage Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Salivary Gland Tumors, Retinoblastoma, Tongue Cancer Metastasis, Role of Human Papilloma Virus in Tonsillar Cancer and Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma are discussed. Part 3 discusses in detail Thyroid Carcinoma, including Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma, Molecular Genetics of the Thyroid, Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma, PET Imaging in Thyroid carcinoma, Thyroid Cancer and Markers for Diagnosis, Metastasized Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma, and Prognostic Factors in Thyroid Carcinoma. The information presented in this volume should help in the development of novel, more effective therapeutic approaches for the treatment of head and neck cancer and thyroid cancer. Professor Hayat has summarized the problems associated with the complexities of research publications and has been successful in editing a must-read volume for oncologists, cancer researchers, medical teachers and students of cancer biology. Cover Page......Page 1 Methods of Cancer Diagnosis, Therapy, and Prognosis, Volume 7......Page 3 Title Page......Page 4 ISBN 9048131855......Page 5 Contributors......Page 7 Preface......Page 14 Introduction......Page 16 Contents of Volumes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6......Page 17 Contents......Page 33 Part I: General Methods and Overviews......Page 48 Diagnosis......Page 50 Mechanism of RNA Interference......Page 52 RNAi as a Cell Based Screening Tool......Page 54 RNAi to Understand Compound Mechanism of Action......Page 57 Compound Sensitization, Combination Strategies and Synthetic Lethal RNAi Screens......Page 60 Problems Associated with RNAi Based Approaches......Page 63 References......Page 65 Emerging Technologies for Cancer Biomarker Discovery......Page 68 DNA Microarray......Page 69 Free Flow Electrophoresis......Page 70 Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry......Page 71 Linear Ion Trap Quadrupole-Orbitrap......Page 72 Multiple Reaction Monitoring......Page 73 Tissue Array......Page 74 Currently Used Cancer Biomarkers (Table 2.2)......Page 75 Genomic-Based Biomarkers in Cancer......Page 77 Proteomic-Based Biomarkers in Cancer......Page 78 Transcriptomic-Based Biomarkers in Cancer......Page 79 Genomic-Based Biomarkers in Cancer......Page 80 Proteomic-Based Biomarkers in Cancer......Page 81 Challenges and Perspectives......Page 82 References......Page 83 Morphological Features of Tumor Angiogenesis......Page 88 Immunohistology......Page 90 Angiogenesis......Page 91 CD105 and Vasculogenesis......Page 92 Application of CD105 for Anti-angiogenic Cancer Therapy......Page 93 References......Page 95 Clinical Presentation......Page 98 Histology and Immunophenotype......Page 99 Differential Diagnosis......Page 101 Therapeutic and Prognostic Implications......Page 102 references......Page 103 Introduction......Page 106 Material and Methods......Page 107 Results......Page 109 Discussion......Page 112 References......Page 116 Echoendoscopes and Endoscopic Ultrasound Processors......Page 120 Needles......Page 121 Treatment of Sampled Material......Page 122 Diagnostic Yield......Page 124 References......Page 125 Therapy......Page 126 Introduction......Page 128 Therapeutic Radioisotopes......Page 129 Limitations of Classical Radioimmunotherapy in Solid Tumours......Page 131 Pre-targeting Approach......Page 132 Avidin–Biotin System......Page 134 Avidin–Biotin Pretargeting in Glioma......Page 136 Other Developments......Page 142 References......Page 143 Introduction......Page 146 Clinical Presentations of Neurotoxicity......Page 147 Pathophysiology of Neurotoxicity......Page 148 Clinical Evaluation and Assessment......Page 149 Neurophysiological Assessment......Page 150 Taxanes......Page 152 Cisplatin......Page 153 Other Neurotoxic Chemotherapies......Page 154 Oxaliplatin-Induced Neurotoxicity......Page 155 Assessment of Oxaliplatin-Induced Neurotoxicity......Page 157 Nerve Excitability Studies in Oxaliplatin-Induced Neuropathy......Page 159 Future Directions and Neuroprotection......Page 162 References......Page 164 Influence of Pharmacological and Physiological Factors......Page 168 DNA Repair......Page 169 Cellular Models to Study Drug Resistance......Page 170 Leukemic K562 Cells as a Model to Study Multi-drug Resistance......Page 172 Animal Models to Study Drug Resistance......Page 175 Drug Resistance in the Clinic......Page 176 Reversal of Drug Resistance in the Clinical Setting......Page 177 References......Page 178 Structure of an Antibody......Page 182 Antibody Fragments Combinatorial Libraries......Page 184 Pharmacokinetics of Antibodies......Page 185 Manufacturing of Therapeutic Monoclonal Antibodies......Page 186 Mechanisms of Action of Therapeutic Monoclonal Antibodies (Pharmacodynamics)......Page 187 Therapeutic Monoclonal Antibodies Currently Licensed......Page 190 Anti-CD20 Monoclonal Antibodies......Page 191 Anti-HER-2 Monoclonal Antibody......Page 192 Anti-EGFR Monoclonal Antibodies......Page 193 Anti-VEGF Monoclonal Antibody......Page 194 Human Monoclonal Antibodies Against New Targets and with Innovative Mechanisms of Action......Page 195 Preclinical Evaluation......Page 196 References......Page 197 Introduction......Page 200 Thiopurine Methyltransferase (TPMT)......Page 201 UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 (UGT1A1)......Page 202 Cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6)......Page 204 Multidrug Resistance Protein 1 (MDR1,P-Glycoprotein, ABCB1)......Page 205 Solute Carrier (SLC) Transporters......Page 206 Thymidylate Synthase (TS, TYMS)......Page 207 Xeroderma Pigmentosum Group D (XPD)/ERCC2......Page 208 Typical Genotyping Protocols......Page 209 Candidate Gene Association Strategies......Page 210 Integrative In Vitro/In Vivo Pharmacogenomic Approaches......Page 211 Candidate Gene Association Studies......Page 212 Late-Stage Clinical Development (Phase III Clinical Trials)......Page 214 Incorporating Pharmacogenomics into Clinical Trials: Technical and Legal Issues......Page 215 References......Page 216 Cancer Stem Cells: Concept......Page 220 Isolation of Cancer Stem Cells......Page 221 Origin of Cancer Stem Cells......Page 222 Epigenetics and Cancer Stem Cells......Page 224 Future Perspectives......Page 225 References......Page 227 Introduction......Page 230 Selection Bias......Page 231 Selection Pressure......Page 232 Cell Line Preference and Availability......Page 233 Microbial Contamination......Page 234 New Insights: Microarray Gene-Expression Profiling of Tumours and Cell Lines......Page 235 Conclusions......Page 236 References......Page 237 Prognosis......Page 240 Classification System for Cancer Stage......Page 242 TH1/ TH2-Type Immune Responses and the Regulating Role of the TH3-Type......Page 243 Importance of a New Population Named TH17......Page 244 Method to Study the TH1/TH2/TH3/HT17 Cytokine Network......Page 245 Peripheral Blood Cytokine Network......Page 246 Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell Separation and Generation of Dendritic Cells from Monocytes Using Dynabeads......Page 247 Cytokine Detection......Page 248 Data Analysis......Page 249 The TH1/TH2/TH3/TH17 Cytokine Network in Healthy Subjects......Page 250 Cytokine Network Relationships in Men and Women......Page 251 Disease Stage Indices in Colorectal Cancer......Page 252 Cytokines, sIL2R and sICAM Serum Levels......Page 253 Characterization of Disease Stage......Page 255 Simultaneous Measurement of sCEA and TIMP1......Page 257 References......Page 258 Incidence......Page 262 Seminoma Clinical Stage I......Page 263 Seminoma Clinical Stage >I......Page 264 Nonseminoma Clinical Stage I......Page 265 Nonseminoma Clinical Stage >I......Page 266 Detection and Differential Diagnosis......Page 267 Treatment and Survival......Page 269 Non-seminoma......Page 271 References......Page 272 Part II: Head and Neck Cancer......Page 274 A New Class of Agents for Head and Neck Cancer?......Page 276 A New Target in the Head and Neck Cancer Cell?......Page 277 Evidence for Furaic Acid as a New Head and Neck Cancer Therapy......Page 278 References......Page 280 Introduction......Page 284 Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription......Page 285 Activation of Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription Signaling......Page 286 Physiological Role of Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3......Page 287 Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay......Page 288 Method......Page 289 DNA Binding Affinity Purification......Page 290 Method......Page 291 Method......Page 292 Method......Page 293 In Vivo Studies......Page 294 In Vivo Studies......Page 297 References......Page 299 Diffusion-Weighted Imaging......Page 302 Measurement of Diffusion-Weighted Imaging......Page 303 Clinical Use of Diffusion Weighted Imaging......Page 305 Salivary Gland Tumors......Page 307 2D ADC Color Mapping of Salivary Gland Tumors......Page 308 ADCs of Healthy Major Salivary Glands......Page 310 ADCs of Malignant Salivary Gland Tumors......Page 313 Applications of Apparent Diffusion Coefficient Mapping to the Diagnosis of Malignant Lesions......Page 314 References......Page 315 Human Papillomavirus (HPV)......Page 318 Epidemiology......Page 319 Evidence of HPV Role in Carcinogenesis......Page 320 HPV and Prognosis in Tonsillar Cancer......Page 322 P16INK4a – a Surrogate Marker for HPV 16......Page 323 Future Perspectives......Page 324 DNA In Situ Hybridization (ISH)......Page 325 HPV mRNA Amplification and Detection......Page 326 HPV DNA Load......Page 327 References......Page 328 Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction......Page 332 TaqMan Probes......Page 333 Self Fluorescing Amplicons......Page 334 Quantification of Results......Page 335 Standard Curve Method......Page 336 Oral Tongue Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OTSCC), A Major Subset of Oral Cancer......Page 337 Metastasis – A Major Clinical Problem of Oral Cancer......Page 338 Cancer Biomarkers......Page 340 Cortactin (CTTN)......Page 341 Quantification and Statistical Evaluation of the Markers......Page 345 Future Developments......Page 347 References......Page 348 Introduction......Page 350 Patient Characteristics......Page 351 Treatment......Page 352 Follow-Up and Statistical Analysis......Page 353 Results......Page 354 Incidence of RLN Metastasis Demonstrated by CT......Page 355 Hazard Consistency and Hazard Discrimination......Page 356 Imaging Criteria for Metastatic RLNs......Page 357 Incidence of RLNs Metastasis......Page 358 Spread Patterns of RLNs Metastasis......Page 359 Prognostic Significance and Staging of RLNs Metastasis......Page 360 References......Page 362 Epidemiology......Page 366 Semeiology......Page 367 Clinical Features......Page 368 Clinical Investigation (Balmer and Munier 2002)......Page 371 Extraocular Retinoblastoma......Page 372 Second or Multiple Nonocular Tumors......Page 373 Differential Diagnosis......Page 374 Treatment......Page 375 Chemotherapy......Page 376 Chemothermotherapy......Page 377 Proton Therapy......Page 378 Future Advances......Page 379 Prognosis......Page 380 References......Page 381 Part III: Thyroid Carcinoma......Page 384 Diagnosis......Page 386 Papillary......Page 388 RET Oncogene......Page 390 APC......Page 391 PTEN......Page 392 RET Oncogene......Page 393 P53 Mutations......Page 394 Fine Needle Aspirations (FNA) Reports......Page 395 References......Page 396 Introduction......Page 400 cDNA Microarrays......Page 401 Oligonucleotide Arrays......Page 402 Future Tag-Sequence Methods......Page 403 Sample Preparation......Page 404 Quality Assessment......Page 405 Probe/Tag Mapping......Page 406 Differential Expression Analysis......Page 407 Validation Methods......Page 408 Defining New Molecular Subtypes with Gene Expression Data......Page 410 Expression Profiling Studies in Thyroid Cancer......Page 411 Cross-Platform Integration and Meta-Analysis......Page 414 Molecular Markers for Thyroid Cancer......Page 416 References......Page 419 Introduction......Page 426 Materials......Page 427 HBME1 in Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma and Benign Thyroid Lesions......Page 428 CK19 in Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma and Benign Thyroid Lesions......Page 430 References......Page 431 Comparative Genomic Hybridization......Page 434 Vysis GenoSensor Array CGH......Page 436 Laser Capture Microdissection......Page 437 Array Comparative Genomic Hybridization......Page 438 DNASE Digestion and Labelled Probe Purification......Page 439 Hybridization......Page 440 Washing the Microarrays......Page 441 Image Analysis......Page 442 Discussion......Page 443 References......Page 444 Introduction......Page 446 Positron Emission Tomography......Page 447 Mechanism......Page 448 Differentiated Thyroid Cancer (DTC): Follow-Up......Page 449 Medullary Thyroid Cancer (MTC)......Page 450 Mechanism......Page 451 Medullary Thyroid Cancer......Page 452 Mechanism......Page 453 Scan Method......Page 454 Differentiated Thyroid Cancer......Page 455 Conclusion......Page 456 References......Page 458 Therapy......Page 462 Pentagastrin Testing......Page 464 Ultrasound......Page 465 Fine Needle Aspiration......Page 466 Localizing and Treating Metastatic Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma......Page 467 Radiopeptide Scanning Versus Anatomical Imaging Modalities......Page 468 Radiolabeled Peptides......Page 469 Minigastrin for Detecting Metastasized Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma......Page 470 Biodistribution of Minigastrin......Page 471 Clinical Studies......Page 472 Peptide Receptor Radiotherapy of Metastasized Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma with Gastrin Analogs......Page 474 References......Page 477 Prognosis......Page 480 Pathology and Pathogenesis of Medullary Thyroid Cancer......Page 482 Genetic Screening......Page 484 Prognostic Factors......Page 485 Prophylactic Surgery for Patients with ret Proto-Oncogene Mutations......Page 488 Surveillance......Page 489 References......Page 490 Plasminogen Activating System (PAS)......Page 492 The Plasminogen Activating System in Pathophysiological Conditions......Page 493 Role of Plasminogen Activating System in Human Cancers......Page 494 Clinical Significance of the Expression of Plasminogen Activating System Components......Page 495 The Plasminogen Activating System in Human Thyroid Carcinomas......Page 496 Substrate Gel Electrophoresis (Zymograms)......Page 498 Invasion Assay......Page 500 Real Time RT-PCR......Page 501 Immunohistochemistry......Page 502 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)......Page 503 References......Page 504 A......Page 506 C......Page 507 D......Page 509 E......Page 510 F......Page 511 H......Page 512 K......Page 513 M......Page 514 N......Page 516 O,P......Page 517 R......Page 519 S......Page 520 T......Page 522 X,Z......Page 523 There are more than 100 types of cancers In Part II, head and neck cancer is d- affecting all parts of the human body. cussed. The global number of annual new More than 11 million people are diagnosed cases of this malignancy is ~500,000. These with cancer every year, and it is estimated malignancies include oral squamous cell that there will be 16 million new cases by carcinoma, salivary gland tumors, tons- the year 2020. In 2005, 7. 6 million peo- lar cancer, tongue cancer, nasopharyngeal ple died of cancer, that is, 13% of the 58 carcinoma, and retinoblastoma, which are million deaths worldwide. It is estimated detailed. In Part III, diagnosis, therapy, and that 9 million people will die from can- prognosis of thyroid carcinoma are d- cer worldwide in 2015 and 11. 4 million cussed. The global number of new cases of will die in 2030. More than 70% of all thyroid cancer is ~141,000, and the number cancer deaths occur in low and middle of worldwide thyroid mortalities is ~35,375. income countries. These statistics underlie The number of new cases of this cancer in the fact that cancer is the deadliest of all the United States is ~33,550. Molecular human diseases. The enormity of the glo- genetics of thyroid cancer, gene expr- bal healthcare costs as a result of cancer sion markers for diagnosis, papillary t- cannot be overemphasized. Late Relapse Of Germ Cell Malignancies: Incidence, Management And Prognosis Part II. Head And Neck Cancer. 16. Head And Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Therapy With Fusaric Acid/Paclitaxel. 17. Early Stage Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Use Of Signal Transducer And Activator Of Transcription 3 As A Risk Factor For Poor Diagnosis. 18. Salivary Gland Tumors: Preoperative Tissue Characterization With Apparent Diffusion Coefficient Mapping. 19. Role Of Human Papilloma Virus In Tonsillar Cancer. 20. Quantitative Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction Based Assessment Of The Candidate Biomarkers For Tongue Cancer Metastasis. 21. Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma (Retropharyngeal Lymph Node Metastasis): Spread Pattern, Prognosis And Staging. 22. Retinoblastoma: Diagnosis, Treatment, And Prognosis