Mediating Xenophobia in Africa : Unpacking Discourses of Migration, Belonging and Othering

"Communal conflict continually reminds us why humans seek communal solidarity and should fear it. As this volume's authors demonstrate, the names and terms we use carry moral value about deservingness, about hospitality, and about rights to space and resources. This book offers distinct insights that explain the dynamic dangers of exclusion. The book deserves particular credit for deploying a remarkable collection of scholars and practitioners to surface these themes. While many will not yet be known to the global academy, their contributions suggest they should be." -- Loren B. Landau, Professor, University of Oxford, UK and University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa "Moyo and Mpofu have successfully assembled a stellar group of academics to explore the complex and indeed opaque subject of xenophobia. The result is a brilliant and enlightening volume that expands the canvas of perspectives and advances frontiers of knowledge. I have nothing but praise for this important volume." --Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, Professor and Chair of Epistemologies of the Global South, University of Bayreuth, Germany This book brings together contributions that analyse different ways in which migration and xenophobia have been mediated in both mainstream and social media in Africa and the meanings of these different mediation practices across the continent. It is premised on the assumption that the media play an important role in mediating the complex intersection between migration, identity, belonging, and xenophobia (or what others have called Afrophobia), through framing stories in ways that either buttress stereotyping and Othering, or challenge the perceptions and representations that fuel the violence inflicted on so-called foreign nationals. The book deals with different expressions of xenophobic violence, including both physical and emotional violence, that target the foreign Other in different African countries. Dumisani Moyo is Associate Professor of Communication and Vice Dean, Academic at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Shepherd Mpofu (PhD) is Senior Lecturer at the University of Limpopo, South Africa Foreword Acknowledgements Contents Notes on Contributors List of Figures List of Tables Part I Conceptualising Xenophobia, Migration and Media 1 Mediation, Migration and Xenophobia: Critical Reflections on the Crisis of Representing the Other in an Increasingly Intolerant World Introduction Part I: Concepts and Methodologies Part II: Framing of Xenophobia in the Media Part III: Belonging and Identity Part IV: The Social Media and Migration References 2 Defying Empirical and Causal Evidence: Busting the Media’s Myth of Afrophobia in South Africa Introduction Afrophobia and Xenophobia: What Is the Difference? Reporting on Afrophobia in the South African Press General Reporting on (Im)Migration and Xenophobia Afrophobia Reporting Conclusion: Why Is Afrophobia so Widely Accepted? References 3 Talk Radio and the Mediation of Xenophobic Violence in South Africa Introduction History and Context: Xenophobia and Migration in South Africa Radio in South Africa Theoretical Intervention Methodological Approach Findings Host/Caller Interaction The Host as the Mediator/Gatekeeper The Host as the Voice of Authority Caller to Caller Interaction Discourses and Frames Negative Frames of African Foreigners Moderate Narratives Conclusion References 4 Media, Migrants and Movement: A Comparative Study of the Coverage of Migration Between Two Pairs of Sub-Saharan Countries Introduction and Contextual Framework Coverage of Migration in the Media Making a Case for Zimbabwe–South Africa and Tanzania–Kenya Methodology How We Sourced the Stories for Analysis The Media We Analysed What We Analysed in Each Story Limitations of the Methodology Research Findings The Media’s Coverage of Migration Between Zimbabwe and South Africa What Were the Main Topics in the Migration Coverage? What Were the Main Messages Put Forward in the Stories? Which Sources Were Accessed in the Media Coverage? What Was the Racial Breakdown of Those Accessed in the Coverage? What Was the Gender Breakdown of Those Accessed in the Coverage? Summary Remarks for the South African–Zimbabwean Analysis The Media’s Coverage of Migration Between Kenya and Tanzania What Were the Main Topics in the Coverage of Migration? What Were the Main Messages Covered in the Stories? Who Was Accessed in the Coverage? What Was the Racial Breakdown of Those Accessed in the Coverage? What Was the Gender Breakdown of Those Accessed in the Coverage? Summary Remarks for the Kenyan–Tanzanian Analysis Discussion Levels of Coverage What Do We Hear in Migration Stories? Conclusion References 5 Knowledge, the Media and Anti-immigrant Hate Crime in South Africa: Where Are the Connections? Introduction The Influence of the Media The South African Context The Data Employed Research Results Discussion Conclusion References 6 Quantitative Linguistic Analysis of Representations of Immigrants in the South African Print Media, 2011–2015 Conceptualising Quantitative Approaches to Immigration Representation Studies Designing an Appropriate Quantitative Method Terminology and Phraseology in Studies of the Representations of Immigrants in the Media Data Sourcing and Initial Preparation Descriptive Statistics on Representation of Immigrants in the SA Media, 2011–2015 Quantitative Linguistic Analysis of the Combined Five-Year Data, 2011–2015 Quantitative Linguistic Analysis of 2011 Media Content Data Quantitative Linguistic Analysis of 2012 Media Content Data Quantitative Linguistic Analysis of 2013 Media Content Data Quantitative Linguistic Analysis of 2014 Media Content Data Quantitative Linguistic Analysis of 2015 Media Content Data Interpreting Quantitative Media Representations of Immigrants in South Africa, 2011–2015 References Part II Framing the Other—From Outside Looking In 7 Xenophobia, the Media and the West African Integration Agenda Introduction Xenophobia: An Overview The ECOWAS Integration Project on the Free Movement of Persons Regionalism and the Reality of Xenophobia in West Africa Xenophobia in Ghana Xenophobia in Côte d’Ivoire Xenophobia and the Place of the Media Conclusion References 8 National Identity and Representation of Xenophobia in Mozambican Private and Public Television Introduction Media and Prevailing Negative Narratives Against Migrants in South Africa ‘Moral Panic’ and Social Representations Theory (SRT) Xenophobia and National Identity Alternative Theories and Inclusive Media Narratives Methodology Mozambican Media Coverage of Xenophobic Events in South Africa MTV Video 1: Xenophobia, Broadcast on 15 April 20151 MTV Video 2: Victims of Xenophobia, Broadcast on 17 April 20152 MTV Video 3: Survivors of the Xenophobia, Broadcast on 20 April 20153 MTV Video 4: Victims of Xenophobia, Broadcast on 22 April 20154 TVM Video 1: President of Mozambique Shocked by Xenophobic Events, Broadcast on 20 April 20155 TVM Video 2: Parliament Demands Action on Xenophobic Events in SA, Broadcast on 8 May 20156 TVM Video 3: Conference About Xenophobia, Broadcast on 31 May 2015 TVM Video 4: Mozambicans Apprehensive After Looting and Destruction of Property, Broadcast on 4 February 20157 Discussion Media as an Opportunity to Promote Inclusive Understanding of Transnational Crises Media as a Platform to Advance Narratives of Pacification and Hope in Moments of Crisis Private and Public Media: Anchoring of Official Support in Moments of Crisis Conclusion References 9 ‘They Are Vampires, Unlike Us’: Framing of South African Xenophobia by the Nigerian Press Introduction The Construction of ‘the Intruder Migrant’ Theoretical Framework Methodology Dominant Frames of Xenophobia in the Nigerian Press Nigerian Government Reaction to Xenophobia: Juxtaposing Diplomacy with Confrontation Frames of Hatred: Framing the Xenophobic Attitude of South Africans Towards Nigerians Frames of Anger: Framing the Nigerian Public’s Infuriation and Frustration with Xenophobic Attacks in South Africa Discussion: The Use of Frames Over Time Conclusion References Part III Belonging, Identity Construction 10 ‘Uganda Can Protect Chinese Investors but Not Its Own Citizens?’ Paradoxical Perspectives in Xenophobic Narratives and Practices Fostering Otherness in Uganda Introduction and Background The Uganda Investment Code Act (1991) Government Incentives and Chinese Investment in Uganda Xenophobia in Uganda Chinese Presence and Othering Practices in Uganda Othering Practices and Perceptions Findings and Discussion Chinese Victims Versus Ugandan Villains Rhetoric and Preferential Treatment by Government Officials The Negative Portrayal of Chinese Investors Retribution by Ugandans Experiences of Ugandans Working for Chinese Investors Conclusion References 11 Feminisation of Migration: A Thematic Analysis of News Media Texts About Zimbabwean Migrants in South Africa Introduction Methodological and Theoretical Framework Applying the Grounded Theory Method Through Coding Victimhood and Vulnerability Victims of Sexual violence Vulnerability to Destitution Losing Their Children to Baby Snatchers Single Parenthood Vulnerability to Emotional Turmoil Poverty, Hunger and Starvation Institutionalised Xenophobia Exclusion from Health Care Hate Speech Conclusion References 12 ‘Africa Must Be ... One Place, One Country’: Xenophobia and the Unmediated Representation of African Migrants in South Africa Migration Flows to Africa Methodology Discussion of Findings South Africa Is the ‘Heart of Africa’ The Choice of Fordsburg Access to Livelihoods Migrant Views on South Africans Discussion and Conclusion References 13 Complicity and Condonation: The Tabloid Press and Reporting of Migrant Access to Public Health in South Africa Introduction Role of the Media in Public Health Communication Tabloids: Roles and Functions in the Communicative Space Methodology Theory: Migrant Access and Scapegoating in Public Health Complicity and Condonation: Tabloid Reporting on Migrants’ Access to Public Health Prominence of News Reports on Migrant Access to Public Health Contextualisation of Reports on Migrant Access to Public Health Editorial Focus of Reports on Migrant Access to Public Health Style of News Reports on Migrant Access to Public Health Conclusion References 14 Gateways and Gatekeepers: Social Media and the (Re)Defining of Somali Identity in Kenya’s Security Operations Introduction The Kenyan Government and the Securitisation of the Somali Community Eastleigh Speaks Back: The EBC and the Representation of the Somali Community The Marginalisation of Minority Voices Conclusion References Part IV Social Media and Framing the Margins 15 Social Media, Migration and Xenophobia in the Horn of Africa Introduction The Reasons for Migration Within and from the Horn of Africa Migration Routes from the Horn of Africa The Role of Social Media in the Horn of Africa Migration Network The Social Media’s Contribution to Increasing or Decreasing Migration and Xenophobia Conclusion References 16 Not Just a Foreigner: ‘Progressive’ (Self-)Representations of African Migrants in the Media Introduction Conceptualising Representation and (Self-)Representation Methodology Mainstream Vis-à-Vis Progressive (Self-)Representations of African Migrants in the Media Towards a Framework for Promoting Social Cohesion in South Africa Concluding Remarks References 17 ‘They All Speak English So Well ...’ a Decolonial Analysis of ‘Positive’ Representations of Zimbabwean Migrants by South Africans on Social Media Introduction The Othering Theory Coloniality and Decoloniality Qualitative Content Analysis Highly Educated and Intelligent: Seeing Zimbabweans as Smart and Learned ‘They All Speak English So Well ...’ ‘Bayasebenza labantu!’: These People Work Hard Respectful, Resilient, Patient and Disciplined: Describing Zimbabweans Conclusion References 18 Picturing Xenophobia: Photojournalism and Xenophobic Violence in South Africa Introduction Index