Measuring Stress in Humans: A Practical Guide for the Field (Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology, Series Number 49)

The purpose of this book is to present state-of-the-art non-invasive methods of measuring the biological responses to psychosocial stress in humans, in non-laboratory (field) settings. Following the pathways of Seyle's General Adaptation Syndrome, the text first describes how to assess the psychosocial stressors of everyday life and then outlines how to measure the psychological, behavioral, neurohumeral, physiological and immunological responses to them. The book concludes with practical information on assessing special populations, analyzing the often-complicated data that are collected in field stress studies and the ethical treatment of human subjects in stress studies. It is intended to be a practical guide for developing and conducting psychophysiological stress research in human biology. This book will assist students and professionals in designing field studies of stress. Cover 1 Half-title 3 Series-title 4 Title 7 Copyright 8 Contents 9 Contributors 11 Foreword 13 Part I General principles 15 1 Conducting a field study of stress: general principles 17 Introduction 17 Definitions of stress and their origins 18 Putting the models together: the stress process 26 Stressors 27 Mediators and moderators 28 Appraisal 30 Stress response 31 Behavioral response 31 Distress or affective response 31 Physiological response 32 Biological, environmental and cultural context 33 Health outcomes 34 Summary 35 References 36 Part II Measuring stress responses 39 2 Cultural dimensions of the stress process: measurement issues in fieldwork 41 Introduction 41 Culture and the stress process 41 Ethnographic research on the stress process 45 Chronic sociocultural stressors 45 Acute sociocultural stressors 51 Social resources 53 Coping resources 55 Psychological stress 57 Anthropological studies of the stress process: some implications 58 New directions in research: a theory of cultural consonance 61 Summary 67 Acknowledgment 69 References 69 3 Measuring emotional and behavioral response 74 Introduction 74 Interview methods 74 Published scales 75 Appraisal 75 Affective response 78 Behavioral response 79 Creating a culturally specific scale 80 Scale development 82 Reliability 84 Validity 86 Interviewer training 88 Modes of collecting interview data 90 Diary methods 90 Diary method 91 Frequency of recording 93 What to record 93 Mode of recording 94 Observational methods 95 Coding 95 Measurement types 96 Sampling procedure 96 Mode of recording 98 Other considerations for observational data 99 Conclusions 100 Resource list 100 Note 101 References 101 4 Measuring hormonal variation in the sympathetic nervous system: catecholamines 108 Activation of the stress response 109 Effects of SNS activation 111 Measuring SAMS activity 113 A need for standardization in the use of urinary catecholamines 117 Relationship between catecholamines and other stress measures 119 Individual characteristics that modify catecholamine levels 120 Age 120 Sex 121 Body size 121 Caffeine, alcohol and nicotine 122 Psychological aspects of SAMS activation 122 Anthropological field studies of catecholamine responses to stress 124 Conclusion 126 References 127 5 Measuring hormonal variation in the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis: cortisol 136 What is cortisol? 136 What does cortisol do? 137 Short-term physiologic effects 138 Links with disease 139 Measuring cortisol 140 Free versus bound hormone 140 Body fluids and different methods for collecting saliva and urine 140 Saliva 140 Equipment needed for collection of saliva 141 Urine 143 Assay techniques 143 Circadian rhythm and other extraneous influences on cortisol levels 144 Circadian rhythm 144 Season 146 Age 147 Sex 149 Pregnancy, oral contraceptive use and the menstrual cycle 149 Eating and drinking 150 Exercise 150 Smoking 151 Medication 151 Sampling frequency and timing 151 Saliva samples 151 Urine samples 154 Cortisol as a ‘‘stress hormone’’ 155 Laboratory studies 155 Naturalistic studies 157 Chronic stress and the HPA axis 159 Connecting cortisol to outcomes 160 Summary 160 Resources 160 Labs 160 Assay kits 161 Equipment/supplies 161 References 162 6 Measuring physiological changes in the cardiovascular system: ambulatory blood pressure 172 Introduction 172 What is blood pressure and how is it commonly measured? 173 The unreliability of standardized auscultatory blood pressure measurements 175 Why is blood pressure considered a physiological indicator of stress? 176 Why are stress-related changes in blood pressure important to study? 177 Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring: technical aspects 177 How has the accuracy of the devices been established? 179 The process of collecting ambulatory blood pressure data 180 Making sense of ambulatory blood pressure variation: direct observation and diaries 182 Study design 185 Evaluating the ambulatory blood pressure literature 188 Conclusions 190 References 190 7 Measuring immune function: markers of cell-mediated immunity and inflammation in dried blood spots 195 Introduction 195 Stress, immune function, and disease 196 Current research in psychoneuroimmunology 197 Measuring cell-mediated immunity: antibodies against the Epstein-Barr virus in dried blood spots 200 The EBV antibody model 200 Sample collection, transport, and storage 202 Laboratory analysis 205 Measuring inflammation: C-reactive protein (CRP) in dried blood spots 206 The CRP model 206 Sample collection, transport, and storage 208 Laboratory analysis 208 Measuring immune function in the field 209 Future directions 213 Conclusion 214 Resource list 215 Sample collection 215 EBV antibody analysis 215 CRP analysis 215 References 215 Part III Practical issues in studying stress 223 8 Measuring stress in special populations 225 Stress and reproducing women 225 Stress and reproductive function 225 Stress and pregnancy 227 Measuring stress in women, infants and children 228 Stress in older populations 229 Stress, cognitive function and the brain 229 Stress, aging and gender 230 Measuring stress in older populations 232 Measuring stress in non-clinical settings 233 Conclusions 235 References 235 9 Study design and data analysis 240 Research design and the constraints of data collection 240 Design approaches in field studies 243 Natural experiments 243 Model testing 245 Single vs. multiple measurements per participant 246 Natural experiments 246 Model testing 247 Data analysis 250 Single-measure studies 250 Multiple-measure studies 252 Statistical software 255 Data management, documentation and sharing 255 What does it all mean? 257 References 257 10 Protection of human subjects in stress research: an investigator’s guide to the process 260 Guidelines for ethical research using human subjects 261 IRB structure 262 Determining factors in IRB research review: What are they looking for? 263 Confidentiality and risk 264 Certificate of Confidentiality 265 Study approval: expedited and full-board review 265 Getting informed consent 269 The consenting process in adults 269 Consenting process in minors: parental permission 273 Assent 274 Research involving deception 275 Waived written informed consent 276 Health insurance portability and accountability act regulations: getting permissions 277 Researcher educational requirements 278 Final thoughts: consequences of conducting unreviewed research 279 References 279 11 Epilog: summary and future directions 280 References 282 Index 283 Cover......Page 1 Half-title......Page 3 Series-title......Page 4 Title......Page 7 Copyright......Page 8 Contents......Page 9 Contributors......Page 11 Foreword......Page 13 Part I General principles......Page 15 Introduction......Page 17 Definitions of stress and their origins......Page 18 Putting the models together: the stress process......Page 26 Stressors......Page 27 Mediators and moderators......Page 28 Appraisal......Page 30 Distress or affective response......Page 31 Physiological response......Page 32 Biological, environmental and cultural context......Page 33 Health outcomes......Page 34 Summary......Page 35 References......Page 36 Part II Measuring stress responses......Page 39 Culture and the stress process......Page 41 Chronic sociocultural stressors......Page 45 Acute sociocultural stressors......Page 51 Social resources......Page 53 Coping resources......Page 55 Psychological stress......Page 57 Anthropological studies of the stress process: some implications......Page 58 New directions in research: a theory of cultural consonance......Page 61 Summary......Page 67 References......Page 69 Interview methods......Page 74 Appraisal......Page 75 Affective response......Page 78 Behavioral response......Page 79 Creating a culturally specific scale......Page 80 Scale development......Page 82 Reliability......Page 84 Validity......Page 86 Interviewer training......Page 88 Diary methods......Page 90 Diary method......Page 91 What to record......Page 93 Mode of recording......Page 94 Coding......Page 95 Sampling procedure......Page 96 Mode of recording......Page 98 Other considerations for observational data......Page 99 Resource list......Page 100 References......Page 101 4 Measuring hormonal variation in the sympathetic nervous system: catecholamines......Page 108 Activation of the stress response......Page 109 Effects of SNS activation......Page 111 Measuring SAMS activity......Page 113 A need for standardization in the use of urinary catecholamines......Page 117 Relationship between catecholamines and other stress measures......Page 119 Age......Page 120 Body size......Page 121 Psychological aspects of SAMS activation......Page 122 Anthropological field studies of catecholamine responses to stress......Page 124 Conclusion......Page 126 References......Page 127 What is cortisol?......Page 136 What does cortisol do?......Page 137 Short-term physiologic effects......Page 138 Links with disease......Page 139 Saliva......Page 140 Equipment needed for collection of saliva......Page 141 Assay techniques......Page 143 Circadian rhythm......Page 144 Season......Page 146 Age......Page 147 Pregnancy, oral contraceptive use and the menstrual cycle......Page 149 Exercise......Page 150 Saliva samples......Page 151 Urine samples......Page 154 Laboratory studies......Page 155 Naturalistic studies......Page 157 Chronic stress and the HPA axis......Page 159 Labs......Page 160 Equipment/supplies......Page 161 References......Page 162 Introduction......Page 172 What is blood pressure and how is it commonly measured?......Page 173 The unreliability of standardized auscultatory blood pressure measurements......Page 175 Why is blood pressure considered a physiological indicator of stress?......Page 176 Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring: technical aspects......Page 177 How has the accuracy of the devices been established?......Page 179 The process of collecting ambulatory blood pressure data......Page 180 Making sense of ambulatory blood pressure variation: direct observation and diaries......Page 182 Study design......Page 185 Evaluating the ambulatory blood pressure literature......Page 188 References......Page 190 Introduction......Page 195 Stress, immune function, and disease......Page 196 Current research in psychoneuroimmunology......Page 197 The EBV antibody model......Page 200 Sample collection, transport, and storage......Page 202 Laboratory analysis......Page 205 The CRP model......Page 206 Laboratory analysis......Page 208 Measuring immune function in the field......Page 209 Future directions......Page 213 Conclusion......Page 214 References......Page 215 Part III Practical issues in studying stress......Page 223 Stress and reproductive function......Page 225 Stress and pregnancy......Page 227 Measuring stress in women, infants and children......Page 228 Stress, cognitive function and the brain......Page 229 Stress, aging and gender......Page 230 Measuring stress in older populations......Page 232 Measuring stress in non-clinical settings......Page 233 References......Page 235 Research design and the constraints of data collection......Page 240 Natural experiments......Page 243 Model testing......Page 245 Natural experiments......Page 246 Model testing......Page 247 Single-measure studies......Page 250 Multiple-measure studies......Page 252 Data management, documentation and sharing......Page 255 References......Page 257 10 Protection of human subjects in stress research: an investigator’s guide to the process......Page 260 Guidelines for ethical research using human subjects......Page 261 IRB structure......Page 262 Determining factors in IRB research review: What are they looking for?......Page 263 Confidentiality and risk......Page 264 Study approval: expedited and full-board review......Page 265 The consenting process in adults......Page 269 Consenting process in minors: parental permission......Page 273 Assent......Page 274 Research involving deception......Page 275 Waived written informed consent......Page 276 Health insurance portability and accountability act regulations: getting permissions......Page 277 Researcher educational requirements......Page 278 References......Page 279 11 Epilog: summary and future directions......Page 280 References......Page 282 Index......Page 283 Pt. I. General Principles -- Conducting A Field Study Of Stress: General Principles / Gillian H. Ice And Gary D. James -- Pt. Ii. Measuring Stress Responses -- Cultural Dimensions Of The Stress Process: Measurement Issues In Fieldwork / William W. Dressler -- Measuring Emotional And Behavioral Response / Gillian H. Ice -- Measuring Hormonal Variation In The Sympathetic Nervous System: Catecholamines / Daniel E. Brown -- Measuring Hormonal Variation In The Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (hpa) Axis: Cortisol / Tessa M. Pollard And Gillian H. Ice -- Measuring Physiological Changes In The Cardiovascular System: Ambulatory Blood Pressure / Gary D. James -- Measuring Immune Function: Markers Of Cell-mediated Immunity And Inflammation In Dried Blood Spots / Thomas W. Mcdade -- Pt. Iii. Practical Issues In Studying Stress -- Measuring Stress In Special Populations / Sharon R. Williams -- Study Design And Data Analysis / Gary D. James And Gillian H. Ice -- Protection Of Human Subjects In Stress Research: An Investigator's Guide To The Process / Gary D. James And Gillian H. Ice -- Epilog: Summary And Future Directions / Gary D. James And Gillian H. Ice. Edited By Gillian H. Ice And Gary D. James. Includes Bibliographical References And Index.

The purpose of this 2006 book is to present non-invasive methods of measuring the biological responses to psychosocial stress in humans, in non-laboratory (field) settings. Following the pathways of Seyle's General Adaptation Syndrome, the text first describes how to assess the psychosocial stressors of everyday life and then outlines how to measure the psychological, behavioral, neurohumeral, physiological and immunological responses to them. The book concludes with practical information on assessing special populations, analyzing the often-complicated data that are collected in field stress studies and the ethical treatment of human subjects in stress studies. It is intended to be a practical guide for developing and conducting psychophysiological stress research in human biology. This book will assist students and professionals in designing field studies of stress.

This 2006 book provides in-depth guidelines for designing a field project on stress in humans. It provides pros and cons of various methods and guides the researcher through every aspect of study design from what containers to use to collect samples, to the most appropriate measures and statistical analysis.