Meaning And Universal Grammar: Theory And Empirical Findings. Volume 1 (studies In Language Companion Series) (v. 1)

This book develops a bold new approach to universal grammar, based on research findings of the natural semantic metalanguage (NSM) program. The key idea is that universal grammar is constituted by the inherent grammatical properties of some 60 empirically established semantic primes, which appear to have concrete exponents in all languages. For six typologically divergent languages (Mangaaba-Mbula, Mandarin Chinese, Lao, Malay, Spanish and Polish), contributors identify exponents of the primes and work through a substantial set of hypotheses about their combinatorics, valency properties, complementation options, etc. Each study can also be read as a semantically-based typological profile. Four theoretical chapters by the editors describe the NSM approach and its application to grammatical typology. As a study of empirical universals in grammar, this book is unique for its rigorous semantic orientation, its methodological consistency, and its wealth of cross-linguistic detail. Meaning and Universal Grammar 2 Editorial page 3 Title page 4 Copyright page 5 Table of contents 6 Acknowledgements 12 List of Contributors 14 List of Maps and Tables 16 Typographical Conventions and Symbols 16 Opening Statement: Meaning and Universal Grammar • Cliff Goddard Anna Wierzbicka 18 References 20 1 The Search for the Shared Semantic Core of All Languages • Cliff Goddard 22 1.0 Introduction 22 1.1 Identifying semantic primes and their exponents 30 1.2 How were the primes identified in the first place? 33 1.3 Allolexy and portmanteaus 37 1.4 When exponents of primes have secondary, polysemic meanings 41 1.5 Non-compositional polysemy (motivated homonymy) between primes 43 1.6 The syntax of semantic primes 48 Abbreviations 50 Notes 50 References 50 2 Semantic Primes and Universal Grammar • Cliff Goddard Anna Wierzbicka 58 2.0 Preliminaries 58 2.1 Substantive phrase 61 2.2 Specifiers 64 2.3 Predicates and predicate phrases 68 2.4 Temporal and locational adjuncts 83 2.5 Other elements 88 2.6 The textual structure of NSM explications 96 Abbreviations 99 Notes 99 References 99 3 Semantic Primes and Universal Grammar in Malay (Bahasa Melayu) • Cliff Goddard 104 3.0 Introduction 104 3.1 Substantives 106 3.1.1 aku l, kau YOU 106 3.1.2 sesuatu SOMETHING 107 3.1.3 seseorang SOMEONE, orang PEOPLE 110 3.1.4 badan BODY 115 3.2 Mental predicates 116 3.2.1 fikir THINK, tahu KNOW 116 3.2.2 mahu/nak WANT 118 3.2.3 nampak SEE, dengar HEAR 118 3.2.4 rasa FEEL 119 3.3 Speech 122 3.3.1 kata SAY, henar TRUE 122 3.3.2 perkataan WORDS 124 3.4 Actions, events and movement 126 3.4.1 buat DO 126 3.4.2 terjadi HAPPEN 128 3.4.3 bergerak MOVE 129 3.5 Existence and possession 131 3.5.1 ada THERE IS 131 3.5.2 ada HAVE 134 3.6 Life and death 135 3.6.1 hidup LIVE 135 3.6.2 mati DIE 137 3.7 Determiners 138 3.7.1 ini THIS 138 3.7.2 sama/yang sama THE SAME 140 3.7.3 lain OTHER 142 3.8 Quantifiers 143 3.8.1 satu ONE, dua TWO 143 3.8.2 semua ALL, banyak MUCH/MANY 144 3.8.3 berberapa SOME 145 3.9 Evaluators 149 3.9.1 baik GOOD and buruk BAD 149 3.10 Descriptors 153 3.11 Time 153 3.11.1 bila WHEN, masa/waktu TIME 153 3.11.2 sekarang NOW 156 3.11.3 sebelum/dulu BEFORE, selepas AFTER 157 3.11.5 beberapa lama [?] FOR SOME TIME 161 3.11.6 saat MOMENT 162 3.12 Space 163 3.12.1 (di) mana/tempat WHERE/PLACE, (di) sini HERE 163 3.12.2 dekat NEAR jauh FAR, (di) atas ABOVE, (di) bawah BELOW 164 3.12.3 (di) dalam INSIDE 165 3.12.4 di sebelah ON (ONE) SIDE 166 3.13 Logical concepts 168 3.13.1 sebab BECAUSE, kalau IF 168 3.13.2 tidak/tak NOT, mungkin MAYBE 172 3.13.3 boleh CAN 173 3.14 Augmentor 174 3.15 Intensifier 176 3.16 Taxonomy and partonomy 177 3.17 Similarity 178 3.18 Review 179 Appendix 3.1: Two natural semantic metalanguage texts in Malay 181 Appendix 3.2: Exponents of semantic primes in Malay 185 Abbreviations 186 Acknowledgements 186 Notes 186 References 187 4 La Metalengua Semántica Natural:The Natural Semantic Metalanguage of Spanish • Catherine Travis 190 4.0 Introduction 190 4.1 Substantives 194 4.1.1 yo I, usted YOU 194 4.1.2 alguien SOMEONE, algo SOMETHING 200 4.1.3 gente PEOPLE 201 4.2 Mental predicates 203 4.2.1 saber KNOW 203 4.2.2 pensar THINK 205 4.2.3 querer WANT 208 4.2.4 ver SEE, oír HEAR 211 4.2.5 sentir FEEL 211 4.3 Speech 213 4.3.1 decir SAY 213 4.3.2 palabras WORDS 214 4.4 Actions, events and movement 215 4.4.1 hacer DO 215 4.4.2 pasar HAPPEN 217 4.4.3 moverse MOVE 218 4.5 Existence and possession 219 4.5.1 hay THERE IS 219 4.5.2 tener HAVE 220 4.6 Life and death 221 4.7 Determiners 221 4.7.1 estoTms 221 4.7.2 lo mismo THE SAME 223 4.7.3 otro OTHER 223 4.8 Quantifiers 224 4.8.1 uno ONE, dos TWO 224 4.8.2 todo ALL 225 4.8.3 mucho MUCH/MANY 225 4.8.4 algunos SOME 226 4.9 Evaluators 227 4.10 Descriptors 230 4.11 Time 232 4.11.1 cuándo/tiempo WHEN/TIME 232 4.11.2 ahora NOW 234 4.11.3 antes BEFORE, después AFTER 234 4.11.4 mucho tiempo A LONG TIME, poco tiempo A SHORT TIME 236 4.11.5 por un tiempo FOR SOME TIME 236 4.11.6 momento MOMENT 237 4.12 Space 238 4.12.1 dónde/sitio WHERE/PLACE 238 4.12.2 aquí HERE 1 4.12.3 debajode BELOW, arriba de ABOVE 1 4.12.4 lejos de FAR, cerca de NEAR 241 4.12.5 a un lado ON (ONE) SIDE 241 4.12.6 dentro de INSIDE 242 4.13 Logical concepts 242 4.13.1 Interclausal linkers', porque BECAUSE, si IF 242 4.13.2 Clause operators: no NOT, tal vez MAYBE 244 4.13.3 Metapredicate: poder CAN 246 4.14 Augmentor 247 4.15 Intensifier 247 4.16 Taxonomy and partonomy 248 4.17 Similarity 249 4.18 Conclusion 250 Appendix 4.1: Two natural semantic metalanguage texts in Spanish 251 Appendix 4.2: Exponents of semantic primes in Spanish 255 Abbreviations 256 Acknowledgements 256 References 257 5 The Universal Syntax of Semantic Primes in Mandarin Chinese • Hilary Chappell 260 5.0 Typological features of Mandarin 260 5.0.1 Classifier constructions 262 5.0.2 Verb complementation 263 5.0.3 Stative verbs 263 5.0.4 Complex clauses 264 5.1 Substantives 265 5.1.1 wŏ l, nĭ YOU 265 5.1.2 yŏu rén ~ shéi SOMEONE 265 5.1.3shénme~ yŏu shï ~ dōngxi SOMETHING/THING 266 5.1.4 rénmen ~ rén PEOPLE 267 5.1.5 shêntĭ BODY 268 5.2 Determiners 269 5.2.1 zhè TEIS 269 5.2.2 tongyàng ~ tóng yī ~ yīyàng THE SAME 271 5.2.3 bié(de) OTHER 273 5.3 Quantifiers 275 5.3.1 yī ONE 276 5.3.2 Häng ~ èr TWO 276 5.3.3 yŏu-de ~yŏu-xiē ~ yīxiē SOME 276 5.3.4 dōu ~suŏyŏu (de) ALL 278 5.3.5 (hĕn) duō ~ xuduō MUCH/MANY 279 5.4 Evaluators 280 5.4.1 hao GOOD 281 5.4.2 huài ~ bù hao BAD 283 5.5 Descriptors 283 5.5.1 dà BIG, xiao SMALL 283 5.6 Mental predicates 284 5.6.1 xiang THINK, zhidao KNOW 285 5.6.2 yào WANT 286 5.6.3 ganjué FEEL 287 5.6.4 tīngdào HEAR, kàndào SEE 288 5.7 Speech 289 5.7.1 shuō SAY 289 5.7.2 zì ~ huà WORDS 293 5.7.3 zhën TRUE 295 5.8 Actions, events and movement 295 5.8.1 zuò DO 295 5.8.2 fäsheng HAPPEN 297 5.8.3 dóng MOVE 300 5.9 Existence and possession 302 5.9.1 yŏu THERE IS 302 5.9.2 yŏu HAVE 303 5.10 Life and death 304 5.10.1 shênghuó~ huó LIVE 304 5.10.2 sĭ DIE 306 5.11 Time 307 5.11.1 shíhou WHEN/TIME 307 5.11.2 xiànzài NOW 309 5.11.3 yíqián BEFORE, yĭhòu AFTER 309 5.11.4 hĕn jiu A LONG TIME, yihuìr A SHORT TIME 311 5.11.5 you ylduàn shijian FOR SOME TIME 311 5.12 Space 312 5.12.1 shénme dîfāng ~ når WHERE, dîfāng ~ når PLACE 'there' 312 5.12.2 zhèr HERE 314 5.12.3 shàngmian ~ -shang ABOVE, xiàmian ~ -xia BELOW 314 5.12.4 yuan FAR, fin ~ de shênbian NEAR 315 5.12.5 -bian ~ pángbian SIDE, -li ~ limian INSIDE 317 5.13 Logical concepts 318 5.13.1 yīnwèi BECAUSE 318 5.13.2 rúguo IF 320 5.13.3 bù ~méi NOT 321 5.13.4 kěnéng MAYBE 322 5.14 Intensifier 323 5.15 Augmentor 325 5.16 Taxonomy and partonomy 325 5.16.1 zhong KIND OF 325 5.16.2 bùfen ~ X you YPART PART 326 5.17 Similarity 326 5.18 Conclusion 328 Appendix 5.1: Two natural semantic metalanguage texts in Mandarin 330 Appendix 5.2: Exponents of semantic primes in Mandarin 333 Abbreviations 334 Acknowledgements 335 Notes 335 References 336 Index of Languages and Language Families 340 General Index 342