Managing Wine Quality: Volume 1: Viticulture and Wine Quality (Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition) 1

__Managing Wine Quality, Volume 1: Viticulture and Wine Quality, Second Edition,__ reviews our current understanding of wine aroma, color, taste and mouthfeel. In addition, it focuses on the measurement of grape and wine properties, the instrumental analysis of sensory evaluation, and wine authenticity and traceability. The effects of viticulture technologies on grape composition and wine quality attributes are also included, with sections on viticultural and vineyard management practices, fungal contaminants, grape processing equipment, and grape harvesting methods for both red and white wines. In addition, there is coverage on the potential impacts of global warming on wine quality. With a focus on recent studies, advanced methods, and a look to future technologies, this fully updated edition is an essential reference for anyone involved in viticulture and oenology who wants to explore new methods, understand different approaches, and refine existing practices. Front Cover Managing Wine Quality: Volume I: Viticulture and Wine Quality Copyright Contents Contributors Part One: Understanding grape and wine sensory attributes Chapter 1: Wine aroma vectors and sensory attributes 1.1. Sensory attributes and chemical stimuli 1.2. The outstanding role of olfaction in food sensory properties 1.3. Olfaction: Sensing biologically relevant volatile molecules 1.4. Limitations of OAVs 1.5. Can wine aroma be explained from its chemical composition? 1.6. The internal logic of wine aroma: Wine buffer and aroma vectors 1.6.1. The aroma buffer 1.6.2. Aroma vectors 1.7. Wine aroma vectors 1.7.1. Alcoholic solvent 1.7.2. Lactic acid 1.7.3. Reduced 1.7.4. Yeasty, oxidized 1.7.5. Flowery 1.7.6. Fruity 1.7.7. Citric green 1.7.8. Vegetal 1.7.9. Spice, woody 1.7.10. Empyreumatic 1.8. Interaction between aroma vectors and the overall aroma perception 1.9. Final remarks Acknowledgments References Chapter 2: Wine taste and mouthfeel 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Wine compounds contributing to taste and mouthfeel 2.2.1. Phenolic compounds 2.2.2. Other wine macromolecules 2.3. Perception of wine taste and mouthfeel 2.3.1. Perception of taste 2.3.2. Perception of mouthfeel 2.3.3. Saliva and oral mucosa composition 2.3.4. Individual variations 2.4. Tannin-protein interactions involved in astringency perception 2.4.1. Influence of protein structure 2.4.2. Influence of tannin structure 2.4.3. Other factors influencing interaction 2.4.4. Physicochemical methods to predict wine astringency 2.5. Sensory analysis of wine taste and mouthfeel properties 2.5.1. Sensory analysis methods 2.5.2. Impact of ethanol, glycerol, acids on wine taste and mouthfeel 2.5.3. Wine compounds responsible for sweet taste 2.5.4. Taste and mouthfeel properties of wine phenolic compounds 2.5.5. Influence of interactions on wine taste and mouthfeel properties 2.6. Viticulture and oenology practices to optimize wine taste and mouthfeel 2.6.1. Impact of genetic factors and vine-growing practices on grape composition 2.6.2. Extraction of phenolics and other macromolecules in winemaking 2.6.3. Impact of oenological practices 2.7. Future research trends References Chapter 3: Wine color 3.1. Introduction: Contribution of color to sensory properties 3.2. Chemistry of wine color 3.2.1. Chemistry of white wine color 3.2.2. Chemistry of red wine color 3.2.2.1. Young red wine 3.2.2.2. Aged red wine 3.2.3. Analysis of wine color 3.3. Vineyard influences on wine color 3.3.1. Development in grapes 3.3.2. Management practices and the influence of environment on fruit composition 3.4. Winery influences on wine color 3.4.1. Prefermentation, fermentation, and maceration 3.4.2. Postfermentation/maceration treatments 3.5. Conclusions References Further reading Part Two: Measuring grape and wine properties Chapter 4: Practical methods of evaluating grape quality and quality potential* 4.1. Grape and wine quality 4.2. Berry development 4.3. Vineyard factors impacting fruit maturation 4.4. Climate 4.5. Light 4.6. Soil 4.7. Water management and grape maturity 4.8. Vine balance, yield, and fruit maturity 4.9. Asynchronous ripening and measuring vineyard variation 4.10. Vine-to-vine variation 4.11. Measuring vineyard variation 4.12. Fruit sorting 4.13. Fruit sampling methods 4.14. Fruit maturity gauges 4.15. Grape sample processing 4.16. Berry size/weight 4.17. Sugar evaluation 4.18. Sugar per berry and sugar loading 4.19. Sugar, maturity, and aroma/flavor 4.20. ``Hangtime ́ ́-Potential for further ripening 4.21. Berry shrivel and firmness 4.22. Brix-to-alcohol ratio 4.23. pH, acidity, and potassium 4.24. Titratable acidity 4.25. Organic acids 4.26. Buffering capacity 4.27. Phenolic compounds 4.28. Factors impacting red wine color 4.29. Vineyard management and grape phenols 4.30. Reductive strength 4.31. Additional evaluations at harvest 4.31.1. Nitrogen 4.31.2. Glutathione 4.32. Berry sensory analysis (BSA) 4.33. Diseases and fruit rots 4.34. Agrochemical residue 4.35. Climate change and fruit maturity 4.36. Practical analytical methods 4.37. Nonconventional maturity evaluation tools 4.38. Conclusions References Chapter 5: The assessment of grape products (berry, juice, and wine) quality using vibrational spectroscopy coupled with ... 5.1. Introduction 5.2. In vineyard, laboratory, and grape payment applications 5.3. Grapevine leaf and tissue analysis 5.4. Grape must and juice analysis 5.5. Juice compositional analysis 5.6. Wine compositional analysis 5.7. Monitoring wine fermentation 5.8. Wine authenticity 5.9. In bottle measurement 5.10. Conclusion References Chapter 6: Advances in microbiological quality control 6.1. Introduction 6.2. Microbial spoilage of wine 6.2.1. Spoilage yeast 6.2.1.1. NonSaccharomyces yeast 6.2.1.2. Brettanomyces 6.2.2. Spoilage bacteria 6.2.2.1. Acetic acid bacteria 6.2.2.2. Lactobacillus 6.2.2.3. Pediococcus 6.2.3. Viable but nonculturable wine microorganisms 6.3. Detecting microorganisms during the winemaking process 6.3.1. Traditional methods 6.3.2. Modern and emerging detection methods 6.4. Microbial control and sanitation in the winery 6.4.1. Controlling microbial growth 6.4.1.1. Current standard methods 6.4.1.2. Emerging control methods 6.4.2. Sanitation 6.5. Quality control programs 6.6. An integrative approach to microbiological quality control in the winery References Chapter 7: Sensory analysis of wine 7.1. Introduction to sensory analysis, the scientific discipline of wine tasting 7.2. Sensory tasting environment and best practices 7.2.1. Recommended practices in wine sensory analysis 7.2.1.1. Samples 7.2.1.2. Sensory room 7.2.1.3. Sensory panel 7.2.1.4. Sensory test instructions 7.2.1.5. Sample presentation order 7.2.1.6. Formation of the sensory panel 7.3. Sensory analysis methods 7.3.1. Determining perceptible sensory differences using discrimination tests 7.3.1.1. Difference tests 7.3.1.2. Intensity ranking tests 7.3.1.3. Threshold tests 7.3.1.4. Intensity rating tests 7.3.2. Describing the nature of the perceptible differences among a set of samples 7.3.2.1. Conventional profiling methods 7.3.2.2. Alternatives and rapid methods to describe sensory perceived differences 7.3.2.3. Panelists profile samples using their own descriptive vocabulary Free choice profiling (FCP) Flash profiling 7.3.2.4. Panelists describe samples without rating attribute intensity Free description Check all that apply (CATA) 7.3.2.5. Panelists compare samples without describing them Free sorting tasks Projective mapping-Napping Polarized sensory positioning (PSP) 7.3.2.6. Profiling temporal sensory profiles 7.3.2.7. Time-intensity (TI) measurement 7.3.2.8. Temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) 7.3.2.9. Temporal check all that apply (TCATA) 7.3.3. Assessing and controlling sensory quality 7.4. Assessing consumer product liking 7.4.1. Purpose of consumer product tests 7.4.2. Consumer product test methods 7.4.3. Methodologies for consumer product testing 7.4.3.1. Qualitative tests 7.4.3.2. Quantitative tests 7.4.4. Predicting consumer product liking 7.5. Integration of sensory evaluation techniques in wine businesses of all sizes 7.6. Conclusions and perspectives for the future 7.7. Additional resources References Chapter 8: Wine authenticity and traceability 8.1. Introduction to wine authenticity 8.2. Classical and novel methods for testing wine authenticity 8.2.1. Analysis of minerals 8.2.2. Analysis with HPLC, GC (phenols, volatiles, amino acids, trans-resveratrol, and ochratoxin) 8.2.2.1. Phenols 8.2.2.2. Volatile compounds 8.2.2.3. Amino acids 8.2.2.4. Trans-resveratrol 8.2.2.5. Ochratoxin 8.2.3. Analysis with NMR, FT-IR spectroscopy, NIR spectroscopy, MS, and sensory techniques 8.2.3.1. Nuclear magnetic resonance 8.2.3.2. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy 8.2.3.3. Near infrared spectroscopy 8.2.3.4. High performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry 8.2.4. Polymerase chain reaction 8.2.5. Sensory analysis 8.3. Multivariate analysis 8.3.1. Principal component analysis 8.3.2. Cluster analysis 8.3.3. Discriminant analysis 8.4. Wine traceability 8.5. Legislation regarding traceability (EU Directive 178/2002) 8.6. Application of ISO 22005:2007 in the wine industry 8.7. Conclusions Appendix (EU Directive 178/2002) References Part Three: Viticulture technologies, grape composition and wine quality attributes Chapter 9: Terroir: The effect of the physical environment on vine growth, grape ripening, and wine sensory attributes 9.1. Introduction 9.1.1. Definition of terroir 9.1.2. The importance of interactions among terroir factors 9.1.3. Interactions between climate and the grapevine variety 9.1.4. Interactions between the soil and the grapevine 9.1.5. Human factor in terroir 9.1.6. Scale issues 9.1.7. Main factors involved in terroir expression 9.2. The climate component of terroir 9.2.1. The effect of climate in terroir expression 9.2.2. Air temperature 9.2.3. Rainfall 9.2.4. Solar radiation 9.2.5. Reference evapotranspiration (ET0) 9.2.6. Agro-climatic indices 9.3. The effect of geology and geomorphology in terroir expression 9.3.1. Geology 9.3.2. Geomorphology 9.4. The soil effect in viticulture 9.4.1. The soil factor in terroir 9.4.2. Soil texture 9.4.3. Soil mineral composition 9.4.3.1. Soil nitrogen 9.4.3.2. Soil potassium 9.4.3.3. Soil calcium 9.4.4. Soil color 9.4.5. Soil biological activity 9.4.6. Soil temperature 9.4.7. Soil water 9.5. Effect of vine water status in terroir expression 9.5.1. Impact of climate, soil, plant material, and management practices on vine water status 9.5.2. Effect of water status on vine growth and grape composition 9.5.3. Terroir expression and irrigation 9.5.4. Assessment of vine water uptake conditions in terroir studies 9.6. Global indicators in terroir assessment 9.6.1. Soil depth 9.6.2. Precocity 9.6.3. Vigor 9.7. Terroir zoning 9.7.1. The need for terroir zoning 9.7.2. Climate-based zoning methods 9.7.3. Soil-based zoning methods 9.7.4. Integrated zoning methods 9.7.5. Zoning based on physiological indicators 9.7.6. GIS-based zoning methods 9.7.7. Zoning based on the perception of growers 9.7.8. The use of smart technologies for terroir studies and zoning 9.7.9. Terroir studies at the intrablock scale (precision viticulture approach) 9.8. Hierarchy of terroir factors 9.8.1. Hierarchy among soil, climate, and cultivar and human factors 9.8.2. Value of landscapes 9.9. Management of terroir 9.9.1. Terroir is managed by man 9.9.2. Indicators of major terroir parameters 9.9.3. Management of temperatures 9.9.4. Management of vine water status 9.9.5. Management of vine nitrogen status 9.10. Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 10: Genetics and genomic approaches to improve grape quality for winemaking 10.1. Introduction 10.2. Viticulture in the context of the broader agricultural sector: A brief overview 10.3. Grape and wine quality 10.3.1. Defining and assessing grape and wine quality 10.3.2. From vineyard management to wine (style): The genetic link(s) 10.4. Improving grape quality for winemaking 10.4.1. Grapevine genetic resources 10.4.1.1. Germplasm collections 10.4.1.2. Research co-ordination 10.4.2. Grapevine genomic resources 10.4.2.1. Grapevine: A model plant? 10.4.2.2. Whole genome sequences 10.4.2.3. Comparative genomic studies 10.4.2.4. Physical and genetic maps 10.4.2.5. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) 10.4.3. Applying molecular tools to grapevine 10.4.3.1. Gene expression and transcriptomic data 10.4.3.2. Proteomics data 10.4.3.3. Metabolomics data 10.4.3.4. Systems biology 10.5. Grapevine improvement 10.5.1. Clonal selection 10.5.2. Conventional breeding 10.5.2.1. Molecular breeding 10.5.2.2. DNA molecular markers 10.5.2.3. Microsatellites/simple sequence repeats 10.5.2.4. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) 10.5.2.5. Expressed sequence tags (ESTs) 10.5.3. Grapevine transformation and biotechnology 10.5.3.1. Transgenic grapevines 10.6. Current research on quality aspects 10.6.1. The terpenoids and flavor and aroma 10.6.2. The flavonoids and color 10.7. Conclusions and future trends References Chapter 11: Viticultural and vineyard management practices and their effects on grape and wine quality 11.1. Introduction 11.2. Fruit exposure and fruit composition 11.2.1. General effects of fruit exposure on fruit composition 11.2.2. Fruit exposure effects on phenolic analytes 11.3. Effects of viticultural practices on fruit composition and wine quality 11.3.1. General effects on fruit composition and wine quality 11.3.1.1. Canopy management 11.3.1.2. Crop control General considerations Balanced pruning, Vitis labruscana, and French-American hybrids Timing of cluster thinning Efficacy of cluster thinning 11.3.1.3. Training systems and vine spacing 11.3.1.4. Mechanical pruning 11.3.1.5. Mechanical thinning 11.3.1.6. Irrigation, fertilization, floor management 11.3.2. Effects of viticultural practices on phenolic analytes 11.3.2.1. Growing season canopy manipulation 11.3.2.2. Crop control 11.3.2.3. Training systems and vine spacing 11.3.2.4. Irrigation 11.4. Aroma compounds: Why should a viticulturist measure aroma compounds? 11.4.1. Esters and other aliphatic hydrocarbons 11.4.1.1. Anthranilic acid esters-Occurrence, significance, biogenesis 11.4.1.2. Muscadine aroma 11.4.1.3. Aliphatic compounds in Vitis vinifera cultivars 11.4.1.4. Biogenesis of aliphatic compounds Biogenesis of alcohols Biogenesis of aldehydes and ketones Biogenesis of esters 11.4.2. Monoterpenes 11.4.2.1. Occurrence 11.4.2.2. Biogenesis of monoterpenes 11.4.3. Norisoprenoids 11.4.4. Methoxypyrazines 11.4.5. Volatile thiols 11.5. Effects of viticultural practices on odor-active substances in grapes and wines 11.5.1. Effects of fruit exposure on conventional substances in grapes and wines 11.5.2. Effects of fruit exposure on monoterpenes 11.5.3. Effects of fruit exposure on methoxypyrazines 11.5.4. Effects of fruit exposure on norisoprenoids 11.6. Effects of growing season canopy management on odor-active substances 11.6.1. Effects of growing season canopy management on monoterpenes 11.6.2. Effects of growing season canopy management on methoxypyrazines 11.6.3. Effects of growing season canopy management on norisoprenoids 11.7. Effects of shoot density and crop level on odor-active substances 11.7.1. Effects of shoot density and crop level on monoterpenes 11.7.2. Effects of shoot density and crop level on methoxypyrazines 11.8. Influence of training systems on odor-active substances in grapes and wines 11.8.1. Influence of training systems on monoterpenes 11.8.2. Influence of training systems on methoxypyrazines 11.9. Influence of irrigation, water relations, and soil management on odor-active substances in grapes and wines 11.9.1. Influence of irrigation on monoterpenes, esters, and higher alcohols 11.9.2. Influence of irrigation on methoxypyrazines 11.9.3. Influence of irrigation on norisoprenoids 11.10. Impact of vineyard site on odor-active substances in grapes and wines 11.10.1. Impact of vineyard site on monoterpenes 11.10.2. Spatial variation in aroma compounds 11.10.3. The influence of vine water status on spatial variation in aroma compounds 11.11. Impact of prefermentation decisions and practices 11.11.1. Impact of prefermentation decisions on monoterpenes 11.11.1.1. Harvest date 11.11.1.2. Pressing 11.11.1.3. Skin contact 11.11.2. Impact of prefermentation decisions on methoxypyrazines 11.12. Conclusions References Further reading Chapter 12: Precision Viticulture: Managing vineyard variability for improved quality outcomes 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Spatial variation in grape yield and vine vigor 12.2.1. Remote sensing of vine vigor 12.2.2. Monitoring and mapping of within-vineyard yield variation 12.2.3. Temporal stability in patterns of within-vineyard variation and the delineation of management zones 12.3. Spatial variation in fruit and wine quality 12.4. The drivers of vineyard variation 12.4.1. Tools for vineyard survey at high spatial resolution 12.5. Options for targeting management within vineyards 12.5.1. Selective harvesting 12.5.2. Other targeted management 12.5.3. Implications for vineyard sampling and crop assessment 12.5.4. Whole-of-block experimentation 12.6. Precision Viticulture and terroir 12.7. Future directions Acknowledgments References Chapter 13: Fungal contaminants in the vineyard and wine quality and safety 13.1. Introduction 13.2. Common fungal diseases that affect grape and wine quality 13.3. Effects of fungal diseases on grape and wine quality 13.3.1. Botrytis bunch rot 13.3.1.1. Effects of botrytis bunch rot on composition of grapes and wine 13.3.1.2. Effects of botrytis bunch rot on sensory attributes of grapes and wine 13.3.2. Powdery mildew 13.3.2.1. Effects of powdery mildew on composition of juice and wine 13.3.2.2. Effects of powdery mildew on sensory attributes of juice and wine 13.3.3. Association of powdery mildew with other microbes and insects 13.3.4. Downy mildew 13.3.5. Ripe rot 13.4. Detection and quantification of fungal contamination of grapes, juice, and wine 13.4.1. Methods for assessing fungal contamination 13.4.2. Botrytis bunch rot 13.4.3. Powdery mildew on grape bunches 13.5. Alternatives to conventional fungicides for control of powdery mildew and botrytis and their effects on wine quality 13.6. Future prospects 13.7. Conclusions 13.8. A selection of resources Acknowledgments References Chapter 14: Controlling ochratoxin A in the vineyard and winery 14.1. Ochratoxin A and its effect on health 14.1.1. Chemical characters of OTA 14.1.2. Toxicity of OTA 14.1.3. Interaction of OTA with other compounds 14.2. Black Aspergilli and OTA production in the vineyard 14.2.1. Fungi responsible for OTA presence in grapes and wine 14.2.2. Black Aspergilli in the vineyard 14.2.3. Ecology of black Aspergilli 14.2.4. The role of cropping system and pest and disease management 14.3. Fate of OTA in the winery 14.3.1. Winemaking operations 14.3.2. Fate of OTA during winemaking 14.3.3. Removal of OTA during winemaking 14.4. OTA in wines internationally 14.4.1. Analytical methods 14.4.2. Occurrence of OTA in wine 14.5. Risk assessment: Contribution of wine in human exposure to OTA 14.6. A decision support system to minimize OTA in wine 14.6.1. Development of decision support systems for the safe management of crops 14.6.2. Decision support systems for OTA in grapes and wine 14.6.3. Mitigation of OTA in grapes production and processing 14.7. Lack of knowledge and the future References Further reading Chapter 15: Advances in grape processing equipment 15.1. Grape processing 15.1.1. The influence of the time of harvesting and the composition on the technology 15.1.2. Basic principles of careful grape processing 15.1.2.1. Harvesting technique 15.1.2.2. Transport technique and grape reception 15.1.2.3. Maceration time 15.1.2.4. Press loading and the pressing process 15.2. Mechanical harvesting 15.2.1. General 15.2.2. Functionality 15.2.3. Technology 15.2.4. Technology specific to each manufacturer 15.2.4.1. Braud/New Holland 15.2.4.2. Pellenc 15.2.4.3. ERO 15.2.4.4. Gregoire 15.2.4.5. Summary 15.2.5. Optimization of grape processing with mechanical harvesters 15.2.6. Cable-drawn steep-slope grape harvesters 15.2.7. Future outlook 15.2.8. Documentation 15.2.9. Yield monitoring 15.3. Grape transportation systems 15.3.1. From vineyard to winery 15.3.2. Grape transport within the winery 15.3.2.1. Grape reception 15.3.2.2. Grape transport 15.4. Grape treatment 15.4.1. Crushing/destemming 15.4.1.1. Basket destemmers 15.4.1.2. Link-belt destemmers 15.4.1.3. High-frequency destemmers 15.4.2. Grape sorting 15.4.2.1. Manual sorting 15.4.2.2. Automatic sorting Sorting line mistral Sorting table Tribaie Optical sorting tables 15.5. Presses 15.5.1. Types of presses 15.5.1.1. Closed membrane presses (tank presses) 15.5.1.2. Semiopen membrane presses 15.5.1.3. Other pressing systems 15.5.2. Pressing programs 15.5.2.1. Standard programs 15.5.2.2. Sequential programs 15.5.2.3. Self-optimizing programs 15.5.2.4. Pressing behavior of the grape material 15.5.2.5. Supplementary program elements 15.6. Conclusions References Further reading Chapter 16: Grape harvesting and effects on wine composition 16.1. Introduction 16.2. Harvesting options 16.3. Harvesting of white grapes: Volatiles, acids, phenolics, and proteins 16.4. Harvesting of white grapes: C6 compounds and varietal thiols 16.5. Harvesting of red grapes: Phenolics and aroma profiling 16.6. Harvesting of red grapes: Impact of optical sorting 16.7. Concluding remarks References Chapter 17: Climate change and its consequences for viticulture 17.1.1. Global climate change 17.1.2. Climate and wine production 17.1.3. Observed changes in wine regions 17.1.4. Predicted changes globally and in wine regions 17.1.5. Summary and conclusions References 17.2.1. Introduction 17.2.2. Vine water use and effects of reduced water availability on vine physiology 17.2.3. Optimizing water use in irrigated viticulture and the potential role of rootstocks 17.2.4. Managing drought stress in rainfed systems 17.2.5. Concluding remarks References 17.3.1. Introduction 17.3.2. Decoupling of color and sugar 17.3.3. Decoupling of berry flavor components 17.3.4. Vineyard practices to restore fruit and wine balance References 17.4.1. Introduction 17.4.2. Smoke composition 17.4.3. Influence of smoke exposure on vine physiology, berry composition, and wine composition and sensory properties 17.4.4. Factors affecting the uptake of volatile phenols in smoke 17.4.5. Diagnosing smoke-affected grapes and wine 17.4.6. Options for managing smoke-exposed fruit 17.4.7. Fire damage to grapevines References Index Back Cover