Managing Persistent Organic Pollutants in India: Case Studies on Vapi and Surat, Gujarat (Emerging Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies)

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are a class of chemicals that are persistent, bio accumulative and toxic (PBT), which are restricted for use under the Stockholm Convention. They adversely impact the environment, human and animal health. Most of the POPs are semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) and known to have a long-range transport potential and are often deposited in colder climate and found in places away from the regions they are produced. POPs are usually hydrophobic (i.e., “water-hating”) and lipophilic (i.e., “fat-loving”) chemicals, due to which they bind to solids, particularly organic matter, and fatty tissues in both marine and terrestrial environments. As a result, POPs may move up the food chain. This book focuses on determining the sources, fate, analytical techniques of detecting POPs as well as their health impacts. It further dwells on the regulatory aspects, management of POPs, best environmental practices (BEPs), Indian and international case studies, gaps in understanding the regulatory aspects. A few key recommendations for the way forward form the concluding chapters of this book. Preface 6 Acknowledgment 8 Contents 9 Chapter 1: Status of Persistent Organic Pollutants Pollution in India 11 1.1 Introduction to Persistent Organic Pollutants 11 1.2 Use, Emission, and Release of POPs into Environment (Toxics Link, 2018) 12 1.2.1 Pesticidal POPs 12 1.2.2 Chemicals Used in Polymers or Plastic Products 15 1.2.3 Brominated Flame Retardants 16 1.2.4 Mixed Usage/Unintentional POPs 17 1.3 Research Studies on POPs in the Environment 18 1.4 Current Scenario of New POPs in India 19 1.5 POPs Management and Determination of Potential Data Gaps in Gujarat 19 1.5.1 Old POPs 21 1.5.2 New POPs 25 References 26 Chapter 2: Regulatory Framework, Policies, and Programs in POPs Management in India 29 2.1 Environmental Governance in India 29 2.1.1 Regulations on Chemicals in India 30 2.2 India’s Program and Policies to Manage POPs 30 2.2.1 National Implantation Plan of India 30 2.2.2 Regulation on the Initial 12 POPs 32 2.2.3 India’s Position on New POPs 33 2.3 Management of POPs in India 42 2.3.1 Institutional Framework to Manage POPs in India 42 2.3.2 Infrastructure and Capacity for POPs Management 43 2.3.3 Role of the Urban Local Bodies in POPs Management 44 2.4 International Programs on POPs and Chemical Management in India 45 2.4.1 Environmentally Sound Management and Final Disposal of PCBs in India 45 2.4.2 Environmentally Sound Management of Medical Wastes in India with a Focus on POPs 46 2.4.3 Development of a NIP in India as a First Step to Implement the SC on POPs 46 2.4.4 Development and Promotion of Non-POPs Alternatives to DDT 47 2.4.5 Institutional Capacity Building for Sustainable Management of Chemicals and Waste with a Special Focus on POPs 48 References 48 Chapter 3: An Indian Perspective on Sources of Persistent Organic Pollutants Associated with Plastic Handling: Consequences of COVID-19 Pandemic 50 3.1 Introduction 50 3.2 Method: POPs Quantification and the Indian Perspective 51 3.3 Discussion 52 3.3.1 Plastic Waste Generation in India 54 3.3.2 Release of POPs Associated with Plastics 55 3.3.2.1 Industrial Sources: Formal and Informal Sectors 55 3.3.2.2 Improper Plastic Waste Management 57 3.3.3 Consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic 62 3.4 Conclusion and the Way Forward 64 References 65 Chapter 4: Transport of POPs from Source to Sea 71 4.1 Persistent Organic Pollutants Under the Stockholm Convention 71 4.2 Environmental Cycling of POPs and Exposure to Ocean Environments 72 4.3 Sources and Transport of POPs in Rivers and Discharges to the Ocean 73 4.4 Environmental Fate Models for Riverine Transport 76 4.5 Fate of Organic Pollutants in the Sea 78 4.6 Uptake of POPs by Marine Biota 80 4.7 Transformation Processes in the Sea 80 4.8 Long-Range Transport of Marine Pollutants 81 References 82 Chapter 5: Environmental Monitoring and Analytical Techniques in Abiotic Matrices of New Persistent Organic Pollutants in India 87 5.1 Introduction 87 5.2 Chemistry of New POPs 89 5.2.1 Pesticidal POPs 89 5.2.1.1 Chlordecone (CLD) 89 5.2.1.2 Pentachlorobenzene (PeCB) 89 5.2.2 Industrial POPs 92 5.2.2.1 Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) 92 5.2.2.2 Tetrabromodiphenyl Ether (TetraBDE) and Pentabromodiphenyln Ether (PentaBDE) 92 5.2.2.3 Hexabromodiphenyl Ether and Heptabromodiphenyl Ether 92 5.2.2.4 Hexabromobiphenyl 92 5.2.2.5 Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) 93 5.3 Monitoring and Extraction Techniques in Abiotic Matrices 93 5.3.1 Monitoring Techniques 93 5.3.1.1 Surface Water 93 5.3.1.2 Atmosphere 96 5.3.1.3 Soil and Sediment 96 5.3.2 Extraction and Clean-Up Methods 97 5.3.2.1 Surface Water 97 5.3.2.2 Atmosphere 97 5.3.2.3 Soil and Sediment 98 5.4 Analytical Methods of New POPs 98 5.4.1 GC/MS/MS analysis 102 5.4.2 LC/MS/MS analysis 104 5.4.3 GC-ECD analysis 105 5.5 Conclusion 105 References 106 Chapter 6: Environmental and Health Impacts 110 6.1 Introduction 110 6.2 Environmental Impacts 111 6.3 Human Health Impacts 115 6.4 Human Exposure to POPs 117 6.4.1 Risk of Cancer from POPs Exposure 117 6.4.2 POPs (Used in Plastic Products) and Their Impact on the Environment and Human Health 118 6.5 The Socioeconomic Analyses of Regulating POPs in India 118 References 130 Chapter 7: International Regulatory Frameworks and Best Practices in Management of POPs 134 7.1 International Regulatory Frameworks, Policies, and Programs for POPs Management 134 7.1.1 Stockholm Convention 134 7.1.2 Rotterdam Convention 136 7.1.3 Basel Convention and Basel Ban Amendment 137 7.2 Other International Governance Initiatives for POPs Management 138 7.2.1 Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) 138 7.2.2 EU Developments on Management of POPs 138 7.2.3 Developments of REACH Regulation to Manage POPs 141 7.3 POPs Management in Developing Countries 142 7.3.1 China 142 7.3.2 Indonesia 144 7.3.3 Brazil 144 7.4 Best Available Techniques (BAT) and Best Environmental Practices (BEP) as Instruments for Controlling POPs Pollution 145 7.4.1 BAT/BEP in Stockholm Convention for POPs 146 7.4.2 BAT Guidance in CLRTP Protocol 149 7.4.3 BAT Reference Document (European IPPC Bureau, 2018) 150 7.5 National Implementation Plan: BAT/BEP in India 151 7.5.1 Implementation of BAT and BEP in India Under NIP 152 7.5.2 Actors In-charge of Information Collection and Evaluation of Techniques 153 7.6 Review of Relevant BAT/ BEP Strategies for India’s Newly Restricted POPs 153 7.6.1 BEP for Phasing Out New POPs 154 7.6.2 BAT/BEP of Hexabromocyclododecane (UNEP, 2017) 155 References 157 Chapter 8: Overview of Use and Release Sources of the Seven New POPs 159 8.1 Introduction 159 8.2 Chlordecone 161 8.2.1 Use of Chlordecone Reported in SC Documents 161 8.2.2 Emission and Release Sources of Chlordecone Reported in SC Documents 161 8.2.3 Presence of Chlordecone in Waste and Routes of Release Reported in SC Documents 162 8.2.4 Countries That Have Submitted the Information in No. 8.1.1 to 8.1.3 162 8.3 Hexabromobiphenyl (HBB) 162 8.3.1 Use of HBB Reported in SC Documents 162 8.3.2 Emission and Release Sources of HBB Reported in SC Documents 163 8.3.3 Presence of the HBB in Waste and Routes of Release Reported in SC Documents 163 8.3.4 Countries That Have Submitted the Information in No. 11.2.1 to 11.2.3 164 8.4 Commercial Octa-BDE 164 8.4.1 Use of c-OctaBDE Reported in SC Documents 164 8.4.2 Emission and Release Sources of c-OctaBDE Reported in SC Documents 165 8.4.3 Presence of c-OctaBDE in Waste and Routes of Release Reported in SC Documents 166 8.4.4 Countries That Submitted the Information in No. 8.3.1 to 8.3.3 167 8.5 Commercial Penta-BDE 167 8.5.1 Use of the c-PentaBDE Reported in SC Documents 167 8.5.2 Emission and Release Sources of c-PentaBDE Reported in SC Documents 168 8.5.3 Presence of c-PentaBDE in Waste and Routes of Release Reported in SC Documents 170 8.5.4 Countries That Have Submitted the Information in No. 8.4.1 to 8.4.3 171 8.6 Pentachlorobenzene (PeCB) 172 8.6.1 Use of PeCB Reported in SC Documents 172 8.6.2 Emission and Release Sources of PeCB Reported in SC Documents 172 8.6.3 Presence of PeCB in Waste and Routes of Release Reported in SC Documents 173 8.6.4 Countries That Have Submitted the Information in No. 8.5.1 to 8.5.3 174 8.7 Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD) 174 8.7.1 Use of HBCDD Reported in SC Documents 174 8.7.2 Emission and Release Sources of HBCDD Reported in SC Documents 175 8.7.3 Presence of HBCDD in Waste and Routes of Release Reported in SC Documents 176 8.7.4 Countries That Have Submitted the Information in No. 8.6.1 to 8.6.3 177 8.8 Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) 178 8.8.1 Use of HCBD Reported in SC Documents 178 8.8.2 Emission and Release Sources of HCBD Reported in SC Documents 179 8.8.3 Presence of HCBD in Waste and Routes of Release Reported in SC Documents 180 8.8.4 Countries That Have Submitted the Information in No. 8.7.1 to 8.7.3 181 References 181 Chapter 9: Analysis of Gaps in Management of POPs in India 187 9.1 Introduction 187 9.2 Data Limitations 188 9.3 Knowledge Gaps 188 9.4 Policy and Regulatory Gaps 190 9.5 Infrastructure and Capacity Gaps 191 9.6 Technological Gaps 191 9.7 Awareness Generation Gaps 192 References 192 Chapter 10: Case Studies: Tapi and Daman Ganga River Basins in Gujarat 193 10.1 Background 193 10.2 Overview of POPs Concentrations in Gujarat 195 10.3 POPs in Tapi Riverine Environment 195 10.4 POPs and Other Organic Compounds in the Daman Ganga Riverine Environment 195 10.5 New POPs in Tapi and Daman Ganga 198 10.6 Prescribed Limits of POPs in Environmental Matrix 198 10.6.1 Limits for HCH 198 10.6.2 Limits for PBDEs 198 10.6.3 Limits of PCDD/Fs 200 References 201 Index 204