Management of Greywater in Developing Countries : Alternative Practices, Treatment and Potential for Reuse and Recycling

This book reviews the consequences of improper disposal of greywater into the environment and the most appropriate treatment technologies for developing countries, focusing on the potential to reuse greywater as a production medium for biomass and bio-products. It also describes the quantities and qualitative characteristics, as well as the common practice of discharging greywater in developing countries, and highlights the associated health risks. Further, it compares the management of greywater in developed and developing countries and explores the advantages and disadvantages of various treatment technologies, discussing the reuse of greywater for irrigation purposes in arid and sub-arid countries, especially in the Middle East. The book shows the benefits of greywater and introduces low-cost technologies based on the available local facilities can be used to discharge, reuse, and recycle it. Preface 6 Contents 8 Contributors 10 Abbreviations 13 1 Qualitative Characterization of Household Greywater in Developing Countries: A Comprehensive Review 16 1.1 Introduction 17 1.2 Definition of Greywater 18 1.3 Sources and Quantity of Greywater in Developing Countries 19 1.4 Qualitative Characteristics of Household Greywater 22 1.4.1 General Composition 22 1.4.2 Physical Characteristics 23 1.4.3 Chemical Characteristics 27 1.4.4 Microbiological Characteristics 33 1.5 Conclusions 41 References 41 2 Consequences of the Improper Disposal of Greywater 47 2.1 Introduction 48 2.2 Microbial Risks 49 2.3 Chemical Risks 56 2.3.1 Eutrophication and Harmful Algae Blooms (HABs) 56 2.3.2 Heavy Metals 57 2.4 Regulations for Greywater Disposal 59 2.5 Conclusions 60 References 61 3 Determination of Pathogens in Greywater 65 3.1 Introduction 66 3.2 Culture-Based Methods 67 3.2.1 Standard Plate Method 67 3.2.2 Purification of Bacterial and Fungal Isolates 70 3.2.3 Identification of Bacterial and Fungal Isolates 72 3.2.4 Membrane Filtration (MF) Methods 73 3.2.5 Enrichment Methods 74 3.3 Comparison Between Direct Surface Plate Method on Different Selective Media and Enrichment Methods 75 3.4 Antibiotic Resistance Among Pathogenic Bacteria in Greywater 79 3.5 Conclusion 83 References 83 4 Reuse of Greywater for Irrigation Purpose 87 4.1 Introduction 88 4.2 Effect of Irrigation with Greywater on Plant and Soil 89 4.2.1 Chemical Effects 89 4.2.2 Microbial Effects 91 4.3 Regulations for Reuse of Greywater 96 4.4 Conclusion 99 References 99 5 Xenobiotic Organic Compounds in Greywater and Environmental Health Impacts 102 5.1 Introduction 103 5.2 Xenobiotic Organic Compounds in the Greywater 103 5.3 Environment and Human Health Impacts of XOCs 109 5.4 Assay of XOCs Toxicity 110 5.5 Regulations of XOCs in the Greywater 115 5.6 Conclusion 116 References 116 6 A Potential Reuse of Greywater in Developed and Developing Countries 122 6.1 Introduction 123 6.2 Weather of Perth, Australia and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 124 6.3 Residential Water Consumption in Perth 124 6.4 Residential Water Consumption in Malaysia 125 6.5 Water Scarcity 125 6.5.1 Quantity Issues in Perth 125 6.5.2 Quality Issues in Malaysia 126 6.6 Greywater Treatment and Its Reuse Practice from a Global Perspective 127 6.6.1 Greywater Treatment and Its Reuse Practice in Perth, Western Australia 128 6.6.2 Greywater Treatment and Its Reuse Practice in Malaysia 130 6.7 Greywater Treatment as a Means of Pollution Control 131 6.8 Potential of Greywater Reuse in Malaysia 132 6.9 Juggling the Differences in Adopting the Good Practice 133 6.10 Institutional and Legal Issues 133 6.11 Conclusions 134 References 134 7 Treatment Technologies of Household Greywater 138 7.1 Introduction 139 7.2 Current Practice of Greywater Treatment System 139 7.3 Storage of Greywater 141 7.4 Treatment Technologies of Greywater 142 7.4.1 Filtration System 142 7.4.2 Constructed Wetland 145 7.4.3 Chemical and Electrochemical Treatment Systems 146 7.4.4 Hybrid Treatment Systems 147 7.5 Removal of XOCs from Greywater 147 7.5.1 Physical Removal of XOCs 148 7.5.2 Chemical Removal of XOCs 150 7.6 Conclusion 155 References 155 8 Phycoremediation: A Green Technology for Nutrient Removal from Greywater 161 8.1 Introduction 162 8.2 Nutrient Removal Techniques from Wastewater 164 8.3 Phycoremediation of Wastewater 165 8.4 Controlled Eutrophication of Microalgae for Phycoremediation 166 8.5 Wastewater Treatment Potential of Microalgae 167 8.6 Conclusions 171 References 172 9 Bioremediation of Xenobiotic Organic Compounds in Greywater by Fungi Isolated from Peatland, a Future Direction 175 9.1 Introduction 176 9.2 Characteristics and Identification of Fungi 177 9.3 Fungi in the Peatland 182 9.4 Biodegradation of XOCs in the Greywater by Fungi 185 9.5 Bio-Carrier System 188 9.6 Mechanism of XOCs Degradation by Fungi 189 9.7 Conclusion 190 References 190 10 Disinfection Technologies for Household Greywater 196 10.1 Introduction 197 10.2 Disinfection Technologies of Greywater 198 10.2.1 Filtration Systems 198 10.2.2 Chemical Disinfection 199 10.2.3 UV Irradiation 200 10.2.4 Solar Disinfection (SODIS) 201 10.2.5 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) 203 10.3 Detection of Inactivated Pathogens in Disinfected Greywater 204 10.4 Pathogen Growth Potential (PGP) 207 10.5 Conclusions 210 References 210 11 Recycle of Greywater for Microalgae Biomass Production 215 11.1 Introduction 216 11.2 Recycle of Greywater for Microalgae Biomass Production 217 11.2.1 Factors Affecting the Biomass Production in Greywater 218 11.3 Harvesting Techniques of Microalgae Biomasses from the Culturing Media 221 11.3.1 Centrifugation 224 11.3.2 Membrane Filtration 224 11.3.3 Sedimentation 225 11.3.4 Flotation 225 11.3.5 Chemical Flocculation and Coagulation 226 11.3.6 Natural Flocculation and Coagulation 227 11.3.7 Advance Technologies for Harvesting of Microalgae Biomass 228 11.4 Drying and Applications of Microalgae Biomass 229 11.5 Conclusion 230 References 231 12 Centralised and Decentralised Transport Systems for Greywater and the Application of Nanotechnology for Treatment Processes 237 12.1 Introduction 238 12.2 Centralised and Decentralised Systems for Greywater 238 12.3 Model Transport Simulation for Drainage Pollution 241 12.4 Model Development of Streeter–Phelps 243 12.5 Mathematical Analysis of the Streeter–Phelps Equation Model 246 12.6 Advantages or Contribution of the Pollutant Transport Model 248 12.7 Nanotechnology Applications for Greywater Treatment 249 12.8 Conclusion 251 References 251 13 Removal of Nutrients from Meat Processing Wastewater Through the Phycoremediation Process 255 13.1 Introduction 255 13.2 Food Processing Industry 256 13.3 Environmental Effects Of Untreated Wastewater Disposal 257 13.4 Characteristics of Untreated Wastewater from Meat-Related Activities 258 13.5 Wastewater Treatment in the Meat Processing Industry 260 13.6 The Use of Microalgae for the Phycoremediation of Meat Processing Wastewater 261 13.6.1 Previous Applications of Microalgae in Phycoremediation 264 13.7 Biokinetics of Nutrient Removal from Wastewater 266 13.8 Conclusion 269 References 269 Front Matter ....Pages i-xv Qualitative Characterization of Household Greywater in Developing Countries: A Comprehensive Review (Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, Efaq Ali Noman, Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, J. D. Bala, Amir Hashim Mohd Kassim)....Pages 1-31 Consequences of the Improper Disposal of Greywater (Efaq Ali Noman, Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, Balkis A. Talip, H. Nagao, Amir Hashim Mohd Kassim et al.)....Pages 33-50 Determination of Pathogens in Greywater (Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, Efaq Ali Noman, Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, Amir Hashim Mohd Kassim)....Pages 51-72 Reuse of Greywater for Irrigation Purpose (Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, Efaq Ali Noman, Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, Balkis A. Talip, Abd Halid Abdullah, Amir Hashim Mohd Kassim)....Pages 73-87 Xenobiotic Organic Compounds in Greywater and Environmental Health Impacts (Efaq Ali Noman, Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, Balkis A. Talip, Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, H. Nagao, Amir Hashim Mohd Kassim)....Pages 89-108 A Potential Reuse of Greywater in Developed and Developing Countries (Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, Amir Hashim Mohd Kassim, Anda Martin, Stewart Dallas, Mohd Hairul Bin Khamidun)....Pages 109-124 Treatment Technologies of Household Greywater (Efaq Ali Noman, Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, Siti Asmah Bakar, Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, Balkis A. Talip, Amir Hashim Mohd Kassim)....Pages 125-147 Phycoremediation: A Green Technology for Nutrient Removal from Greywater (A. A. Wurochekke, Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, Efaq Ali Noman, Amir Hashim Mohd Kassim)....Pages 149-162 Bioremediation of Xenobiotic Organic Compounds in Greywater by Fungi Isolated from Peatland, a Future Direction (Efaq Ali Noman, Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, Balkis A. Talip, Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, H. Nagao, Amir Hashim Mohd Kassim et al.)....Pages 163-183 Disinfection Technologies for Household Greywater (Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, Efaq Ali Noman, Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, Balkis A. Talip, Amir Hashim Mohd Kassim, Norli Ismail)....Pages 185-203 Recycle of Greywater for Microalgae Biomass Production (Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, Efaq Ali Noman, Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, Najeeha Mohd Apandi, Maizatul Azrina Yaakob, Fadzilah Pahazri et al.)....Pages 205-226 Centralised and Decentralised Transport Systems for Greywater and the Application of Nanotechnology for Treatment Processes (A. Athirah, Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, Efaq Ali Noman, Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, Amir Hashim Mohd Kassim)....Pages 227-244 Removal of Nutrients from Meat Processing Wastewater Through the Phycoremediation Process (A. S. Vikneswara, Radin Maya Saphira Radin Mohamed, Adel Ali Saeed Al-Gheethi, Amir Hashim Mohd Kassim, Norzila Othman)....Pages 245-263