Mammalian Toxicology of Insecticides (Issues in Toxicology, Volume 12)

Annotation Insects are more similar in structure and physiology to mammals than plants or fungi. Consequently, insecticides are often of greater toxicity to mammals than herbicides. This is particularly the case with neurotoxins. However, some insecticides are targeted at structures or hormonal systems specific to insects (insect growth regulators/chitin synthesis inhibitors) so are less harmful but can still be mildly haematotoxic. There are, therefore, issues specific to insecticides, which do not occur with other pesticides - hence the need for a book specifically on insecticide toxicology in mammals. The book starts with general issues relating to the mammalian toxicity of insecticides, including target/non-target specificity, nomenclature and metabolism of insecticides. It then goes on to discuss specific types of insecticides including: organochlorines; anticholinesterases; pyrethrum and synthetic pyrethroids; nicotine and the neonicotinoids; insect growth regulators/ecdysone agonists/chitin synthesis inhibitors; insecticides of natural origin; biological insecticides; and insecticides used in veterinary medicine Cover......Page 1 Contents......Page 8 1.1 Introduction......Page 18 1.2 Classification......Page 19 1.3 Regulation of Insecticides......Page 21 1.4 Exposure......Page 22 1.4.1 Exposure to Mixtures of Insecticides......Page 23 1.5.2 Probabilistic Exposure Assessment......Page 25 1.8 Purity of Insecticides......Page 26 References......Page 27 2.1 Introduction......Page 31 2.2 Overview of Major Xenobiotic Metabolizing Enzymes Important in the Mammalian Metabolism of Insecticides......Page 32 2.2.1 Phase 1 Reactions......Page 33 2.3 Organochlorine Insecticides......Page 34 2.3.1 Chlorinated Diphenylethane Insecticides......Page 35 2.3.2 Chlorinated Cyclodiene Insecticides......Page 36 2.4 Organophosphorus Insecticides......Page 39 2.4.1 Parathion......Page 41 2.4.3 Malathion......Page 42 2.5 N-Methylcarbamate Insecticides......Page 43 2.5.2 Carbofuran......Page 44 2.6 Pyrethroid Insecticides......Page 45 2.6.1 Pyrethrins I and II......Page 46 2.7 Neonicotinoid Insecticides......Page 47 2.8 Conclusion......Page 50 References......Page 51 3.1 Introduction......Page 54 3.1.1 General Toxicity......Page 55 3.1.2 Toxicity to Humans......Page 59 3.2.1 DDT......Page 60 3.2.2 TDE, Ethylan, Dicofol and Chlorobenzilate......Page 69 3.2.3 Methoxychlor......Page 70 3.3.1 Lindane (g-Hexacholorcyclohexane)......Page 73 3.3.2 Cyclodiene and Related Insecticides......Page 77 3.3.3 Toxaphene......Page 81 3.4 Mirex and Chlordecone......Page 82 3.4.1 Mirex......Page 83 3.4.2 Chlordecone......Page 84 3.6 Summary......Page 86 References......Page 87 4.1 Introduction......Page 121 4.2 Brief Historical Perspective......Page 122 4.4 Types of OPs and CMs......Page 123 4.5.1 Acute Toxicity......Page 127 4.5.2 Intermediate Syndrome......Page 132 4.5.3 Chronic Toxicity......Page 133 4.6 Development of Tolerance......Page 135 4.7 Interaction of Anticholinesterase Insecticides......Page 136 4.8.1 Biomarkers of Exposure......Page 138 4.8.3 Biomarkers of Susceptibility......Page 140 4.9.2 Antidotal Therapy......Page 141 References......Page 143 5.1 Introduction......Page 154 5.2 Metabolic Chemistry......Page 155 5.2.1 Pyrethrin I......Page 158 5.2.2 S-Bioallethrin/Allethrin......Page 159 5.2.3 Resmethrin......Page 161 5.2.4 Permethrin......Page 165 5.2.5 Cypermethrins......Page 167 5.2.6 Bifenthrin......Page 168 5.2.7 Tefluthrin......Page 173 5.2.8 Fenvalerate/Esfenvalerate......Page 175 5.2.9 Cyfluthrin......Page 176 5.2.10 Deltamethrin......Page 179 5.2.11 Fenpropathrin......Page 180 5.2.12 Cyhalothrin......Page 182 5.2.13 Ethofenprox......Page 183 5.3 Mode of Action......Page 185 5.3.1 Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel (VGSC)......Page 186 5.3.2 Voltage-Gated Calcium Channel (VGCC)......Page 188 5.3.4 Voltage-Gated Potassium Channel (VGKC)......Page 189 5.3.7 Nicotinic ACh-Related Receptors......Page 190 5.4.2 Motor Activity......Page 191 5.4.3 Auditory Startle Response (ASR)......Page 192 5.5 Conclusions......Page 193 References......Page 194 6.1 Introduction......Page 201 6.3 Mode of Action of Nicotine and Neonicotinoid Insecticides......Page 202 6.3.2 SelectiveToxicityofNicotine andNeonicotinoids......Page 203 6.4.2 Acute Toxicity......Page 206 6.4.4 Reproductive Toxicity......Page 207 6.5.1 Metabolism and Toxicokinetics......Page 208 6.5.3 Short-Term Toxicity......Page 209 6.5.5 Reproductive Toxicity......Page 211 6.5.6 Neurotoxicity......Page 212 6.5.7 Human Data......Page 214 6.6.3 Short-Term Toxicity......Page 215 6.6.4 Long-Term Toxicity/Carcinogenicity/Mutagenicity......Page 216 6.6.6 Neurotoxicity......Page 217 6.7.2 Acute Toxicity, Irritation and Sensitization......Page 218 6.7.5 Reproductive Toxicity......Page 219 6.8 Toxicology of Nitenpyram......Page 220 6.8.5 Reproductive Toxicity......Page 221 6.9.1 Metabolism and Toxicokinetics......Page 222 6.9.2 Acute Toxicity, Irritation and Sensitization......Page 223 6.9.4 Long-Term Toxicity/Carcinogenicity/Mutagenicity......Page 224 6.9.6 Neurotoxicity......Page 225 6.10.1 Metabolism and Toxicokinetics......Page 226 6.10.4 Long-Term Toxicity/Carcinogenicity/Mutagenicity......Page 227 6.10.6 Neurotoxicity......Page 228 6.11.2 Acute Toxicity, Irritation and Sensitization......Page 229 6.11.6 Neurotoxicity......Page 230 6.12 Discussion......Page 231 References......Page 233 7.1 Introduction......Page 238 7.2.2 Methoprene......Page 239 7.2.3 Hydroprene......Page 241 7.2.4 Cyromazine......Page 242 7.2.5 Dicyclanil......Page 244 7.2.6 Fenoxycarb......Page 247 7.3 Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors......Page 250 7.3.1 Diflubenzuron......Page 251 7.3.2 Flufenoxuron......Page 253 7.3.3 Lufenuron......Page 255 7.4 Ecdysone Agonists......Page 258 7.4.1 Tebufenozide......Page 259 7.4.2 Methoxyfenozide......Page 262 References......Page 267 8.1 Introduction......Page 271 8.2 Rotenone......Page 272 8.2.2 Acute Toxicity, Irritancy and Sensitization......Page 274 8.2.4 Carcinogenicity and Mutagenicity......Page 275 8.2.7 Reference Doses......Page 276 8.3 Neem Tree Products......Page 278 8.3.1 Toxicity of the Insecticidal Neem Seed Kernel Extracts NeemAzal and Fortune AZA......Page 280 8.3.2 Toxicity of Neem-Derived Products to Humans......Page 282 8.3.3 Reference Doses for NeemAzal and Fortune AZA......Page 283 8.4 Avermectins......Page 284 8.4.1 Toxicology of Abamectin......Page 287 8.5 Spinosyn Products......Page 290 8.5.3 Repeated Dose Toxicity......Page 292 8.5.6 Effects in Humans......Page 293 8.6 Quassin......Page 294 8.6.5 Effects on Reproduction and Development......Page 295 8.6.7 Reference Doses......Page 296 8.7.1 Absorption, Distribution, Excretion and Metabolism......Page 297 8.7.4 Carcinogenicity and Mutagenicity......Page 298 Reference......Page 299 9.1.1 Fipronil......Page 305 9.1.2 Ethiprole......Page 306 9.2.1 Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion......Page 308 9.2.2 Toxicology......Page 309 9.3.1 Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion......Page 312 9.3.2 Toxicology......Page 313 9.4.2 Toxicology......Page 315 References......Page 316 10.1 Introduction......Page 319 10.2 Bacillus thuringiensis......Page 320 10.2.1 Adverse Findings......Page 322 10.2.2 Bacillus thuringiensis Cry Proteins......Page 323 10.2.3 Conclusion......Page 324 10.4 Beauveria bassiana......Page 325 References......Page 326 11.2.1 Clinical Features......Page 329 11.2.3 Management......Page 332 11.3.1 Clinical Features......Page 336 11.3.3 Management......Page 338 11.4.1 Clinical Features......Page 340 11.5.1 Clinical Features of Phosphide Ingestion......Page 341 11.5.3 Inhalation of Phosphine......Page 343 11.6.1 Clinical Features......Page 344 References......Page 347 12.1 Background......Page 365 12.2.1 Pyrethroids......Page 366 12.2.2 Neonicotinoids......Page 383 12.2.3 Organophosphorus Compounds......Page 385 12.2.4 Semicarbazone......Page 390 12.2.5 Oxadiazone......Page 392 12.2.6 Phenylpyrazoles......Page 395 12.2.7 Amitraz......Page 399 12.2.8 Dicyclanil......Page 402 12.2.9 Cyromazine......Page 405 12.2.10 Benzoylureas—Diflubenzuron/Lufenuron/Teflubenzuron......Page 408 12.2.11 Spinosad......Page 411 References......Page 414 13.1 Introduction......Page 444 13.2 Metabolism......Page 446 13.3.1 Acute Toxicity......Page 447 13.3.3 Carcinogenicity Studies......Page 450 13.3.5 Summary of Animal Toxicity Studies......Page 459 13.3.6 Factors Relating to Toxicity......Page 465 13.5 Adverse Effects in Target Species......Page 466 13.5.1 Cats......Page 467 13.5.2 Dogs......Page 468 13.5.4 Cattle......Page 469 13.6 Conclusions......Page 470 References......Page 471 Subject Index......Page 485 The book reviews general issues relating to the mammalian toxicity of insecticides, including target/non-target specificity, nomenclature and metabolism of insecticides. It then goes on to discuss specific types of insecticides.