Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, 3e

Known as 'the bible' of herpetological medicine and surgery, Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, 3rd Edition edited by Stephen Divers and Scott Stahl provides a complete veterinary reference for reptiles and amphibians, including specific sections on practice management and development; taxonomy, anatomy, physiology, behavior, stress and welfare; captive husbandry and management including nutrition, heating and lighting; infectious diseases and laboratory sciences; clinical techniques and procedures; sedation, anesthesia and analgesia; diagnostic imaging; endoscopy; medicine; surgery; therapy; differential diagnoses by clinical signs; specific disease/condition summaries; population health and public health; and legal topics. Well-organized and concise, this new edition covers just about everything related to reptiles and amphibians by utilizing an international array of contributing authors that were selected based on their recognized specialization and expertise, bringing a truly global perspective to this essential text;**Section 2: Biology (Taxonomy, Anatomy, Physiology and Behavior)** 7. Taxonomy, Anatomy and Physiology of Tortoises, Turtles and Terrapins 8. Taxonomy, Anatomy and Physiology of Snakes 9. Taxonomy, Anatomy and Physiology of Lizards 10. Taxonomy, Anatomy and Physiology or Crocodilians 11. Taxonomy, Anatomy and Physiology of Tuataras 12. Taxonomy, Anatomy and Physiology of Amphibians 13. Natural Behaviors 14. Conditioning and Behavioral Training 15. Stress and Welfare of Reptiles and Amphibians **Section 3: Husbandry and Management** 16. General Husbandry and Management of Reptiles 17. Environmental Lighting 18. Disinfection 19. Quarantine 20. Snakes 21. Lizards 22. Management of Venomous Species 23. Tortoises, Freshwater Aquatic Turtles and Terrapins 24. Sea Turtles 25. Crocodilians 26. Tuatara 27. Nutrition 28. General Husbandry and Management of Amphibians **Section 4: Infectious Diseases and Laboratory Sciences** 29. Bacteriology 30. Virology 31. Mycology 32. Parasitology Including Hemoparasites 33. Hematology 34. Clinical Chemistry 35. Hematology and Biochemistry Tables 36. Molecular Diagnostics 37. Immunopathology 38. Cytology 39. Biopsy 40. Necropsy 41. Commercial and Analytical Labs **Section 5: Techniques and Procedures** 42. Handling and Physical Examination 43. Diagnostic Techniques and Sample Collection 44. Catheter Placement 45. Esophogastric Feeding Tube Placement 46. Hospitilization 47. Euthanasia **Section 6: Anesthesia** 48. Sedation 49. General Anestheisa 50. Analgesia 51. Regional Anesthesia and Analgesia 52. Amphibian Anesthesia **Section 7: Diagnostic Imaging** 53. Radiography -- General Principles 54. Radiography -- Lizards 55. Radiography -- Snakes 56. Radiography -- Chelonians 57. Radiography -- Crocodilians 58. Ultrasonography 59. Computed Tomography 60. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 61. Scintigraphy **Section 8: Endoscopy** 62. Diagnostic and Surgical Endoscopy Equipment 63. Endoscopy practice management and marketing 64. Diagnostic Endoscopy 65. Endoscope-Assisted and Endoscopic Surgery **Section 9: Medicine** 66. Urology 67. Hepatology 68. Cardiology 69. Dermatology I (Skin) 70. Dermatology II (Shell) 71. Ophthalmology 72. Otorhinolaryngology 73. Gastroenterology I (Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach) 74. Gastroenterology II (Small and large intestines) 75. Gastroenterology III (Cloaca) 76. Pulmonology 77. Neurology 78. Oncology 79. Endocrinology 80. Theriogenology 81. Musculoskeletal 82. Vascular, Hematopoietic Immunology 83. Clinical Behavioral Medicine 84. Nutritional Diseases 85. Perinatology 86. Geriatrics 87. Emergency and Critical Care 88. Toxicology 89. Amphibian Medicine Overview **Section 10: Surgery** 90. Surgical Equipment, Instrumentation and General Principles 91. Eye 92. Ear 93. Rhinarium 94. Oral Cavity 95. Venemoid surgery 96. Integument -- Skin 97. Coeliotomy -- Snake 98. Coeliotomy -- Lizard 99. Prefemoral Coeliotomy -- Chelonian 100. Transplastron Coeliotomy -- Chelonian 101. Coeliotomy -- Crocodilian 102. Respiratory Tract 103. Gastro-Intestinal Surgery 104. Urinary Tract 105. Reproductive Tract 106. Cloacal Surgery 107. Amphibian Soft Tissue Surgery 108. External Coaptation 109. Fracture Fixation 110. Spinal Surgery 111. Limb Amputation 112. Tail Amputation 113. Shell Surgery and Repair **Section 11: Therapy** 114. Therapeutic Overview and General Approach 115. Routes of Administration 116. Antibiotic Therapy 117. Antifungal Therapy 118. Antiviral Therapy 119. Anti-Inflammatory Therapy 120. Anti-Parasitic Therapy 121. Mental Health Treatment 122. Nutritional Therapy 123. Chemotherapy 124. Radiation Therapy 125. Miscellaneous Drug Therapy 126. Allometric Scaling 127. Reptile Formulary 128. Amphibian Formulary 129. Low Level LASER Therapy 130. Wound Management 131. Rehabilitation and Physical Therapy 132. Alternative and Complimentary Therapies **Section 12: Differential Diagnosis by Clinical Signs** 133. Snakes 134. Lizards 135. Chelonians 136. Crocodilians 137. Amphibians **Section 13: Specific Disease/ Case Summary** 138. Abscesses 139. Acariasis 140. Regurgitiation and Vomiting 141. Aural Abscess 142. Bites and Prey-Induced Trauma 143. Cloacal Prolapse 144. Cryptosporidiosis (Lizards) 145. Cryptosporidiosis (Snakes) 146. Urolithiasis (cystic calculi, cloacal uroliths) 147. Diarrhea 148. Digit Abnormalities 149. Dysecdysis 150. Dystocia 151. Gout 152. Hemoparasites 153. Hepatic Lipidosis 154. Herpesviruses of Tortoises 155. Hyperglycemia 156. Hyper and Hypovitaminosis A 157. Inclusion Body Disease 158. Secondary Nutritional Hyperparathyroidism 159. Neurologic Disorders 160. Paramyxoviruses 161. Periodontal Disease 162. Pneumonia 163. Pseudogout 164. Renal Disease 165. Shell Damage 166. Salmonellosis 167. Spinal Osteopathy 168. Tail Damage 169. Thermal Burns 170. Stomatitis 171. Scent Gland Adenitis 172. Mycoplasmosis and Upper Respiratory Tract Disease 173. Chytridiomycosis **Section 14: Population and Public Health** 174. Zoonoses and Public Health 175. Working With Free-Ranging Reptiles 176. Medical Management and Rehabilitation of Sea Turtles 177. Commercial Reptile Farming 178. Large Zoo and Private Collection Management 179. Breeders, Wholesale and Retail 180. Laboratory Reptile and Amphibian Management 181. Conservation Issues 182. Herpetofauna and Ecosystem Health **Section 15: Legal Topics** 183. International Legislation 184. European Legislation 185. US Federal Legislation 186. Forensics 187. Jurisprudence, Expert Reports, Testimony and Court Appearance Front Cover Endsheet 2 Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery Copyright Page Dedication Contributors Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Table Of Contents 1 Practice Management and Development 1 Developing a Successful Herpetological Veterinary Service Medicine Practiced Managing/Developing the Business (A) Attracting Clients. 1. Marketing/advertising your herpetological service. 2. Establishing that your practice has herpetological expertise. (B) Proper Organization: Client and Patient Processing “You have only one chance to make a first impression.” (C) Knowledgeable Support Staff “You are only as good as those helping you.” (D) Appropriate Infrastructure “Better facilities make for smoother operations.” (E) Necessary Equipment “No good carpenter blames his tools.” Approach and Attitude “A Clear Statement of Our Ignorance Does More to Advance Science Than Does an Assumption of Knowledge.” References References 2 Reference Resources for the Herpetological Clinician Associations and Societies Books Identification and Husbandry Anatomy and Physiology Pathology Clinical Medicine Journals Online Resources Conferences References References 3 Understanding the Human-Herp Relationship The Human-Animal Bond The Pet Reptile or Amphibian The Commercial Animal Large Collections End-of-Life Considerations Compassionate Euthanasia Guidelines Common Concerns for the Clinician and the Client Regarding Animal Loss Conclusion References References 4 Specialization Advice to Candidates Seeking Specialist Registration Requirements for Continuing Education in the Chosen Specialty Specialty Boards The American College of Zoological Medicine The American Board of Veterinary Practitioners The European College of Zoological Medicine Veterinary Specialization in Australia and New Zealand Specialty Colleges and Boards Web Pages References References 5 The Importance of Herpetological Publication by Clinicians and Academics What Is “Herpetological Literature”? Lay Literature Conference Proceedings Scientific Abstracts Book Chapters Peer-Reviewed Literature Negative Results Don’t Exist...Only Hypotheses That Need to Be Tested Peer-Reviewed Herpetological Medicine Publications Being an Active Participant in Peer Review Conclusion References References 6 Statistics for the Clinician Scientist Hypotheses Data Distribution Sample Size The P-Value Parametric VERSUS Nonparametric Statistical Tests Statistical Software Conclusion References References 2 Biology (Taxonomy, Anatomy, Physiology, and Behavior) 7 Chelonian Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology Taxonomy Anatomy and Physiology Musculoskeletal System Integumentary System Respiratory System Digestive System Genitourinary Systems Sexual Dimorphism Cardiovascular System Nervous System Nonreproductive Endocrine System Special Senses and Salt Glands References References 8 Snake Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology Taxonomy Infraorder Scolecophidia: The Blind Snakes Infraorder Alethinophidia Anatomy and Physiology Integument Cardiovascular System Respiratory System Digestive System Reproductive and Urinary Systems Musculoskeletal System Nervous System and Special Senses Endocrine System Behavior References References 9 Lizard Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology Taxonomy Anatomy and Physiology Integument Cardiovascular System Respiratory System Digestive System Reproductive System Urinary System Musculoskeletal System Nervous System Special Senses Hearing. Vision. Endocrine System Behavior Longevity References References 10 Crocodilian Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology Taxonomy Anatomy and Physiology Integument Cardiovascular System Respiratory System Digestive System Reproductive System Urinary System Musculoskeletal System Nervous System Species Senses Vision. Hearing. Behavior References References 11 Tuatara Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology Taxonomy Anatomy and Physiology Integument Cardiovascular System Respiratory System Digestive System: Dentition Liver Pancreas and Spleen Gastrointestinal System Reproductive System Urinary System Musculoskeletal System Nervous System and Special Senses Endocrine System Thermal Physiology and Metabolic Rate Acknowledgments References References 12 Amphibian Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology Taxonomy Anatomy and Physiology Integument Cardiovascular System Respiratory System Digestive System Reproductive System Urinary System Musculoskeletal System Nervous System Species Senses Endocrine System Behavior References References 13 Natural Behavior Ectothermy Water Conservation and Osmotic Balance Sensory Adaptations Foraging and Predation Sleep and Other Endogenous Rhythms Color Change Defense Predator Avoidance and Immobility Defensive Postures and Displays Tail Displays and Tail Autotomy Counter-Attack Social & Reproductive Adaptations Courtship Mating Gestation Parental Care Nonreproductive Social Behavior Behaviors Particular to Captivity Acknowledgments References References 14 Behavioral Training and Enrichment of Reptiles Enrichment Training Practical Examples of Training and Enrichment Nile Monitor (Varanus niloticus) Komodo Dragon (Varanus komodoensis) Crocodilians Venomous Snakes Conclusion References References 15 Stress and Welfare Physiology of the Stress Response Effects of Stress on the Various Body Systems When Does the Stress Response Become Nonadaptive? The Stress of Captivity How Is Stress Important to Reptile Medicine? Assessing Welfare Needs Recognizing Stress and Its Impacts on Welfare Conclusion Acknowledgments References References 3 Husbandry and Management 16 General Husbandry and Management Biology Basic Husbandry Requirements Temporary Housing or Hospitalization Temperature Photoperiod and Light Quality (Lighting) Humidity and Ventilation Substrate Measuring and Monitoring Cage Size and Construction Quarantine Cleaning and Disinfection Examinations Parasite Control Control of Disease Transmission in Closed Collections Multi-Individual and Multispecies Enclosures Environmental Enhancement and Outdoor Enclosures Bioactive Substrates Water Feeding Stress Conclusion Acknowledgments References References 17 Environmental Lighting Natural Sunlight Infrared Visible Light and UVA UVB Utilizing Natural Sunlight Electromagnetic Radiation Infrared Ceramic Heaters, Panel Heaters, and Heat Mats. Incandescent Lamps. Visible Light “Daylight” Fluorescent Tubes and Compact Lamps. Metal Halides. LED Lighting. Colored Lamps. Ultraviolet Estimating the UV Requirement: the Ferguson Zone Concept. Excessive UV Exposure/Nonterrestrial UVB and UVC References References 18 Disinfection Techniques and Products References References 19 Quarantine Disease Risk Assessment Quarantine Duration Quarantine Evaluation References References 20 Snakes Restraint Specific Housing Requirements Thermoregulation Feeding and Nutrition Behavior Brumation Longevity References References 21 Lizards Restraint Identification Specific Housing Requirements Cage Size and Orientation Construction Materials Substrates Cage Furniture Outdooor Enclosures Thermoregulation Lighting Water Provision, Humidity, and Osmoregulation Communal Housing and Handling Feeding and Nutrition Herbivores Insectivores Carnivores Nectivore Disinfection Quarantine References References 22 Venomous Species Development of Emergency Protocols for the Management of Venomous Animal Bites Classification of Venomous Reptiles Venoms Hemotoxic Effects Neurotoxic Effects Myotoxic Effects LD50 Medical Management of Snakebite Snake Venom Detection Kit (SVDK) Antivenom Handling and Treating Venomous Snakes in the Veterinary Hospital Venomoid Snakes Venomous Animal Bite Plan (United States) Venomous Animal Escape Plan First-Aid Procedures First-Aid Procedures for a Venomous Reptile Bite (United States) Elapid Snakebite (Australia) Pressure/Immobilization Medical Treatment Acknowledgments References References 23 Tortoises, Freshwater Turtles, and Terrapins Handling Lighting Temperature Hibernation Predators and Other Hazards Annual Examinations Identification Acclimatization Tortoise and Box Turtle Care Outdoor Housing Indoor Housing Substrates Water Feeding Reproduction Neonatal Care Aquatic Turtles Housing Temperature Water Quality Haul Out and/or Nesting Area Feeding Neonatal Care Species Interactions Acknowledgments References References 24 Sea Turtles Sea Turtle Species and Identification Natural History Permit Conditions for Sea Turtle Captive Care and Rehabilitation Handling and Transportation Housing Quarantine and Biosecurity Nutrition Conclusion References References 25 Crocodilians Restraint Identification Specific Housing Requirements Feeding and Nutrition References References 26 Tuatara Restraint Identification Specific Housing Requirements Feeding and Nutrition Acknowledgments References References 27 Nutrition Water Complete Manufactured Diets Reading a Product Label Metabolizable Energy Protein Multivitamins and Calcium Supplements Multivitamins Calcium Supplements Nutritional Biology Insectivores Gut-Loading Insects. Dusting Insects. Insect Variety. Carnivores Snakes. Crocodilians. Herbivores Misconceptions. Omnivores Box Turtles. Bearded Dragons. Sea Turtles. Freshwater Turtles. Conclusion References References 28 Amphibians Restraint Identification Specific Housing Requirements Temperature Lighting Outdoor Enclosures Quarantine and Disinfection Procedures Environmental Toxins Transportation of Amphibians Suitability of Species Stocking Density Feeding and Nutrition References References 4 Infectious Diseases and Laboratory Sciences 29 Bacteriology Reptiles as Microbial Ecosystems Bacterial Diagnostics An Overview of Bacterial Taxa Firmicutes Streptococcus. Enterococcus. Staphylococcus. Listeria. Clostridium. Erysipelothrix. Proteobacteria α-Proteobacteria Bartonella. Rickettsia. Ehrlichia. Anaplasma. β-Proteobacteria Burkholderia. Neisseria. Chromobacterium. γ-Proteobacteria Pseudomonadales: Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumanii. Aeromonadales: Aeromonas hydrophila. Xanthomonadales: Stenotrophomonas maltophila. Enterobacteriales. Salmonella. Morganella. ε-Proteobacteria Campylobacter. Helicobacter. Actinobacteria Actinomyces, Arcanobacterium, and Trueperella. Rhodococcus. Corynebacterium. Nocardia. Mycobacterium. Austwickia. Devriesea. Bacteroidetes Elizabethkingia. Chlamydiae Chlamydia, Neochlamydia, Parachlamydia, and Simkania. Tenericutes Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, and Acholeplasma. Spirochaetes Borrelia. Leptospira. Fusobacteria Fusobacterium necrophorum. Cyanobacteria References References 30 Virology Adenoviridae Adenoviruses in Squamates Adenoviruses in Chelonians Adenoviruses in Crocodilians Identification of Adenovirus Infections Virus Detection. Serology. Herpesviridae Herpesviruses in Squamates Herpesviruses in Crocodilians Herpesviruses in Chelonians Identification of Herpesvirus Infections Virus Detection. Serology. Iridoviridae Ranaviruses Chelonians Squamates Transmission. Identification of Ranavirus Infections Virus Detection. Serology. Invertebrate Iridoviruses (IIV) Identification of IIV Infections Erythrocytic Viruses Identification of Erythrocytic Viruses Papillomaviridae Papillomaviruses in Squamates Papillomaviruses in Chelonians Identification of Papillomavirus Infections Poxviridae Identification of Poxvirus Infections Circoviridae and Tornovirus Parvoviridae Hepadnaviridae Retroviridae Reoviridae Identification of Reovirus Infections Virus Detection. Serology. Bornaviridae Paramyxoviridae: Ferlavirus Ferlaviruses in Squamates Ferlaviruses in Chelonians Identification of Ferlavirus Infections Virus Detection. Serology. Sunviridae: Sunshinevirus Rhabdoviridae Arenaviridae Inclusion Body Disease (IBD) Identification of IBD and Reptarenaviruses Bunyaviridae Nidovirales: Coronaviridae Picornaviridae Identification of Picornavirus Infections in Tortoises Virus Detection. Serology. Caliciviridae Flaviviridae West Nile Virus (WNV) Identification of WNV Infections Togaviridae References References 31 Mycology Reptile-Fungal Ecology Issues in Mycology Fungal Diagnostics Pharmacologic Antifungal Therapy An Overview of Fungal Taxa Microsporidia Diagnosis. Treatment. Chytridiomycota Diagnosis. Treatment. Zoopagomycota Basidiobolus ranarum. Schizangiella serpentis. Mucormycota Mucor. Dikarya Basidiomycota. Cryptococcus/Filobasidiella. Ascomycota Pezizomycotina—Eurotiomycetes: Onygenales. Ophidiomyces. Coccidioides. Paranannizziopsis. Pezizomycotina—Eurotiomycetes: Chaetothyriales. Exophiala and Veronaea. Pezizomycotina—Sordariomycetes: Hypocreales. Purpureocillium. Metarhizium. Pezizomycotina—Eurotiomycetes: Eurotiales Aspergillus. Saccharomycotina—Saccharomycetes: Saccharomycetales Candida. References References 32 Parasitology (Including Hemoparasites) Reptile-Parasite Ecology Diagnostic Confirmation Single-Celled Parasites Alveolata Ciliophora (Balantidium, Nyctotherus). Apicomplexa. Haemosporidia (Plasmodium, Haemoproteus, Haemocystidium). Coccidia. Adeleorina (Hepatozoon, Hemolivia, Haemogregarina, Karyolysus). Eimeriorina (Cryptosporidium, Isospora, Sarcocystis, Eimeria, Caryospora, Schellackia, Choleoeimeria, Intranuclear Coccidium of Tortoises). Cryptosporidiidae. Eimeriidae. Sarcocystidae. Excavata Fornicata (Giardia, Hexamita). Parabasalea (Monocercomonas). Euglenozoa (Trypanosoma, Leishmania). Amoebozoa (Entamoeba) Entamoeba Invadens. Metazoan Parasites Platyhelminthes Trematoda (Flukes). Cestoda (Tapeworms). Monogenea. Lophotrochozoa Annelida (Leeches). Acanthocephala (Thorny-Headed Worms). Ecdysozoa Nematoda. Strongyloidoidea. Ascaridida. Oxyurida. Trichinellida. Arthropoda. Pentastomida. Arachnida. Insecta. References References 33 Hematology Sample Collection and Preservation Restraint and Site Preparation Venipuncture Equipment Anticoagulant Venipuncture Sites Sample Storage and Expected Analyte Changes The Hematology Report Complete Blood Count (CBC) Leukogram (White Blood Cell Count and Differential) Red Blood Cells Packed Cell Volume Leukocyte Morphology, Function, and Interpretation Lymphocyte Monocyte Azurophil Heterophil Eosinophils Basophils Thrombocytes Hemoparasites and Cellular Inclusions References References 34 Clinical Chemistry Venipuncture Gross Plasma Evaluation Lipemia Lymphatic and Cerebrospinal Fluid Dilution Hemolysis Anticoagulants, Preservation, and Venipuncture Sites Anticoagulants Sample Preservation Venipuncture Sites Blood Chemistry Enzyme Activities Biliverdin and Bilirubin Bile Acids Proteins and Acute Phase Reactants Acute Phase Proteins Reptile Glucose Hypoglycemia. Hyperglycemia. Amphibian Glucose Lipids and Lipoproteins Calcium, Phosphorus, and Magnesium Osmolality, Sodium, Potassium, Chloride, and Bicarbonate Blood Gases and Acid-Base Balance Uric Acid, Urea, and Ammonia References References 35 Hematology and Biochemistry Tables References References 36 Molecular Infectious Disease Diagnostics Serology or Culture Compared With Molecular Techniques Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Probe Hybridization Quantitative PCR Consensus PCR Techniques Rolling Circle Amplification High Throughput Sequencing Sample Collection for Nucleic Acid–Based Diagnostics How to Choose a Laboratory References References 37 Immunopathology Cells and Tissues of the Immune System Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity Responses and Disorders Sex Hormone–Induced Immunopathology Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals Response to Infectious Agents Immune Complex-Associated Glomerulonephritis Splendore-Hoeppli Reaction Hypersensitivity Amyloidosis Neoplasia of the Immune System Vaccination Immunohistochemistry References References 38 Cytology Sample Acquisition Aspirates Impression Smears Scrapes Swabs Sample Handling Sample Submission References References 39 Biopsy Gross Photography References References 40 Necropsy Necropsy Procedures 1. Obtain Medical History 2. External Examination Integument and Musculoskeletal System. 3. Open the Body Cavity 4. Remove and Set Aside the Organs 5. Examine and Sample the Organs Hematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues (Spleen, Thymus, Bone Marrow, Peripheral Blood). Endocrine Organs (Adrenal, Pancreas, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Ultimobranchial, Pituitary, Pineal Glands). Cardiovascular System (Heart, Great Vessels). Respiratory System (Trachea, Bronchi, Lung, Pseudodiaphragm). Urogenital System (Kidney, Urinary Bladder, Ovary, Uterus, Testes, Phallus/Hemipenes). Liver. Nervous System (Brain, Spinal Cord). Gastrointestinal Tract. 6. Write the Report After the Necropsy Acknowledgments References References 41 Diagnostic Laboratory Listing North America (Accredited Laboratories) Alabama Arizona California Main Laboratory Branch Laboratories Colorado Main Laboratory Branch Laboratories Connecticut Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Main Laboratory Branch Laboratory Iowa Kentucky Louisiana Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Main Laboratory Branch Laboratories Missouri Montana Nebraska New York Main Laboratory Branch Laboratories North Carolina Main Laboratory Branch Laboratories North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania South Dakota Tennessee Texas Main Laboratory Branch Laboratories Utah Main Laboratory Virginia Branch Laboratory Washington Main Laboratory Branch Laboratory Wisconsin Main Laboratory Branch Laboratory Wyoming Canada North America (Labs With Provisional Accreditation) Kansas North America (Nonaccredited Laboratories) California Florida Georgia Illinois Ohio Utah Washington Europe Germany Spain United Kingdom Australia Asia Hong Kong Singapore 5 Techniques and Procedures 42 Medical History and Physical Examination Special Considerations Reception and Preparation Transportation Large Dangerous or Venomous Reptiles Chemical Restraint Operant Conditioning and Training Zoonoses Weight, Length, and Body Condition Score Cloacal Temperature Transillumination Auscultation Snakes Lizards Chelonians Crocodilians References References 43 Diagnostic Techniques and Sample Collection Diagnostic Sample Collection Blood and Hemopoietic System Venipuncture and Blood Collection. Snakes. Lizards. Crocodilians. Bone Marrow. Spleen. Cardiovascular Function. Integument Ectoparasites. Skin Scrapes and Impression Smears. Scale and Skin Biopsies. Respiratory System Nares, Larynx and Cranial Trachea. Caudal Trachea and Lung Lavage. Lung Biopsy. Endoscopic Biopsy. Gastrointestinal System Oral Biopsy. Cloacocolonic Lavage. Gastric Lavage. Gastroscopy and Biopsy. Liver Biopsy. Pancreatic Biopsy. Musculoskeletal System Bone and Shell Biopsy. Muscle Biopsy. Urinary System Urine. Voided urine. Renal Biopsy. Coeliotomy biopsy. Cranial tail cut-down biopsy. Bladder Biopsy. Endoscopic biopsy. Cloacocolonic Biopsy. Reproductive System Phallus and Hemipenes. Cloacal (Musk) Glands. Oviducts and Vas Deferens. Gonads. Nervous System and Special Senses Cerebrospinal Fluid. Eyes. Ears. Peripheral Nerve Evaluation and Biopsy. References References 44 Catheter Placement Peripheral Venous Catheterization Catheter Types Catheter Insertion Sites (Table 44.1) Intraosseous Catheterization Catheter Types Catheter Insertion Sites Intracardiac Catheterization Arterial Catheterization Central Venous Catheterization Catheter Types Seldinger Technique Verification of Placement Rewiring of Catheters Catheter Maintenance Vascular Access Ports Catheter Maintenance Conclusion References References 45 Esophagostomy Tube Placement Procedure Maintenance and Use Removal Conclusion References References 46 Hospitalization Indications for Hospitalization Enclosures and Security Temperature Humidity Enclosure Substrate Nutrition Staff Monitoring References References 47 Euthanasia Euthanasia Techniques Euthanasia of Field-Collected Animals Slaughter Amphibians References References 6 Anesthesia 48 Sedation Maintaining Body Temperature Induction and Recovery Routes of Administration Benzodiazepines α2-Adrenergic Agonists Phenothiazines (Acepromazine) Opioids Sedation Using Low-Dose Anesthetic Agents Dissociatives (Ketamine, Tiletamine) Propofol Alfaxalone Non-Pharmaceutical Methods Vasovagal Response Cold Narcosis Monitoring Patients Under Sedation References References 49 General Anesthesia Anatomy and Physiology Thermoregulation and Environmental Temperature Cardiopulmonary Systems Hepatic First-Pass Effect. Respiratory Anatomy and Physiology. Preanesthetic Evaluation Supportive Measures Injectable Anesthetic Agents Routes of Parenteral Drug Administration Drugs General Anesthesia Induction Maintenance Monitoring Techniques Cardiovascular Monitoring Respiratory Performance Anesthetic Emergencies Recovery References References 50 Analgesia Reptile Nociception or Pain? Neuroanatomic and Neurophysiological Evidence Nociceptive Pathways. Nociceptors. Opioid Receptors and Endogenous Opioids. Measurement and Quantification of Pain and Analgesia in Reptiles Analgesic Drugs Methods of Administration Opioids and Opioidlike Analgesics Parenteral Anesthetics Local Anesthetics as Analgesics Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) Acupuncture Multimodal Analgesic Approaches Conclusion Ackowledgments References References 51 Regional Anesthesia and Analgesia Mechanism of Action Adverse Effects Local Anesthetics Lidocaine Bupivacaine Local Anesthetic Techniques Tissue Infiltration (Incisional Anesthesia) Nerve Blocks Spinal Anesthesia References References 52 Amphibian Anesthesia Anatomy and Physiology Anesthetic Agents and Modes of Administration Tricaine Methanesulfonate Eugenol Inhalant Agents Injectable Agents Miscellaneous Drugs Monitoring Cardiopulmonary Parameters Reflexes Anesthetic Procedure Preparation Induction Maintenance Recovery Analgesia Emergencies References References 7 Diagnostic Imaging 53 Radiography—General Principles Radiographic Equipment Image Interpretation References References 54 Radiography—Lizards Restraint and Positioning Cardiovascular System Respiratory System Digestive System Reproductive System Urinary System Musculoskeletal System Miscellaneous References References 55 Radiography—Snakes Restraint and Positioning Cardiovascular System Respiratory System Gastrointestinal System Contrast Radiography Liver Reproductive System Urinary System Musculoskeletal System Miscellaneous References References 56 Radiography—Chelonians Restraint and Positioning Cardiovascular System Respiratory System Gastrointestinal System Reproductive System Urinary System Musculoskeletal System References References 57 Radiography—Crocodilians Restraint, Preparation, and Positioning Whole Body Cranial Coelom Caudal Coelom Skull Spine/Tail Limbs Pelvis 58 Ultrasonography Equipment Special Considerations Indications Patient Preparation Scanning Pattern Cardiovascular System The Liver The Fat Body Gastrointestinal Tract The Spleen The Gonads Urinary Bladder Kidneys The Eye Abscesses References References 59 Computed Tomography Acknowledgments References References 60 Magnetic Resonance Imaging Principles of Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI Applications in Reptiles Acknowledgments References References 61 Scintigraphy Skeletal Scintigraphy Scintigraphic Techniques Case 1 Case 2 Renal Scintigraphy References References 8 Endoscopy 62 Diagnostic and Surgical Endoscopy Equipment Diagnostic Endoscopy Equipment Telescopes and Sheaths Flexible Endoscopes Light Sources Cameras Photodocumentation Mobile Units CO2 Insufflation and Saline Infusion Flexible Instrumentation Endosurgical Equipment Cannulae and Trocars Instruments and Handles Surgical Devices and Hemostasis Endoscopy Tables and Support Arms Equipment Cleaning, Sterilization, and Storage Acknowledgments References References 63 Endoscopy Practice Management (Fee Structures and Marketing) Equipment Charges, Ancillary Fees, and Procedural Fees Marketing Conclusion References References 64 Diagnostic Endoscopy Preoperative Evaluations and Anesthesia Patient Selection, Evaluation, and Contraindications Patient Preparation and Anesthesia Operating Room Preparation, Ergonomics and Equipment Handling Diagnostic Endoscopy Procedures Tracheoscopy and Pulmonoscopy Stomatoscopy and Gastroscopy Cloacoscopy Coelioscopy Lizards. Snakes. Chelonians. Natural Orifice Transluminal Endoscopic Surgery (NOTES) Pathology and Endoscopic Biopsy Postoperative Care, Complications, and Outcomes Acknowledgments References References 65 Endoscope-Assisted and Endoscopic Surgery Endosurgical Principles and Techniques Endoscope-Assisted Procedures Endosurgery Chelonians Oophorectomy of Immature Females Orchiectomy Lizards Orchiectomy Endoscopy Training Acknowledgments References References 9 Medicine 66 Urology Gross Anatomy Order Squamata: Suborder Sauria Suborder Serpentes Order Rhynchocephalia Order Testudines Order Crocodilia Microscopic Anatomy Physiology Clinical Investigation History and Physical Examination Clinical Biochemistry Hematology Urinalysis Urine Collection. Urine Evaluation. Urine pH. Occult blood. Radiography Ultrasonography Scintigraphy Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Endoscopy Needle Aspiration and Cytology Renal Biopsy Ultrasound-Guided Biopsy. Endoscopic Biopsy. Surgical Biopsy. Functional Renal Evaluation General Approach to Treatment Specific Urologic Diseases Gout Clinical Significance. Known Etiological Cause(s). Clinical Presentation. Diagnostic Confirmation. Prognosis and Prevention. Specific Treatment. Glomerulosclerosis, Nephrosclerosis, Glomerulonephrosis, and Tubulonephrosis Clinical Significance. Known Etiological Cause(s). Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation. Prognosis, Prevention, and Treatment. Interstitial Nephritis, Glomerulonephritis, Tubulonephritis, and Pyelonephritis Clinical Significance. Known Etiological Cause(s). Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation. Prognosis and Prevention. Treatment. Toxic Nephropathy Urolithiasis Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s). Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation. Preferred Medical or Surgical Treatment(s). Prognosis and Prevention. Ectopic Eggs in the Urinary Bladder Neoplasia Miscellaneous Diseases Conclusion Acknowledgments References References 67 Hepatology Anatomy Physiology Clinical Investigation History and Physical Examination Clinical Enzymology Plasma Proteins Ammonia Uric Acid and Blood Urea Nitrogen Bilirubin and Biliverdin Bile Acids Glucose Cholesterol, Triglycerides, and Lipids Urinalysis Hematology Radiography Computed Tomography (CT) Ultrasonography Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Endoscopy Fine Needle Aspirate Cytology Biopsy General Approach to Treatment Specific Hepatic Diseases Hepatic Lipidosis Clinical Significance. Known Etiological Cause(s). Clinical Presentation. Diagnostic Confirmation. Specific Treatment(s). Prognosis. Prevention. Hepatitis Clinical Significance. Known Etiological Cause(s). Clinical Presentation. Diagnostic Confirmation. Specific Treatment(s). Prognosis. Prevention. Toxic Hepatopathy Clinical Significance. Known Etiological Cause(s). Clinical Presentation. Diagnostic Confirmation. Specific Treatment(s). Prognosis. Prevention. Cholangitis, Cholecystitis, and Cholecystolithiasis Clinical Significance. Known Etiological Cause(s). Clinical Presentation. Diagnostic Confirmation. Specific Treatment(s). Prognosis. Prevention. Hepatic Neoplasia Clinical Significance. Known Etiological Cause(s). Clinical Presentation. Diagnostic Confirmation. Specific Treatment(s). Prognosis. Prevention. References References 68 Cardiology Cardiac Anatomy and Physiology Cardiac Size, Shape, and Position Pericardium Heart Anatomy Noncrocodilians. Crocodilians. Cardiac Physiology Pacemaker and Heart Rate. Blood Flow During Normal Breathing Noncrocodilians. Crocodilians. Cardiac Shunting. Diagnostic Tools in Reptile Cardiology Physical Examination Auscultation Blood Pressure Measurement and Pulse Oximetry Clinical Pathology Electrocardiography Diagnostic Imaging Radiography. Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Echocardiography Endoscopy. Cardiac Diseases Noninfectious Cardiac Disease Congenital Defects. Cardiomyopathies. Noninfectious Valvulopathies (Valvular Endocardiosis). Pericardial Diseases. Neoplasia. Infectious Cardiac Disease Bacterial (Endocarditis, Myocarditis, and Pericarditis). Viral (Myocarditis, Degeneration, Necrosis). Parasitic. Treatment/Management of Cardiac Disease Inotropes Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitors Diuretics References References 69 Dermatology—Skin Anatomy Physiology Clinical Diseases Infectious Dermatoses Viral Diseases. Bacterial Diseases Clinical significance. Diagnostic confirmation. Prognosis. Mycotic Diseases Clinical significance. Medical therapy. Abscesses Known etiological cause(s) and clinical presentation. Diagnostic confirmation. Parasitic Diseases Clinical significance. Noninfectious Dermatoses Dysecdysis Definition. Clinical significance. Burns Clinical significance. Prognosis. Bites From Prey Clinical significance. Rostral Abrasions Clinical significance. Nutritional Dermatoses Clinical significance. Cutaneous Neoplastic Disorders Known etiological cause(s). Diagnostic confirmation. Diagnostic Testing References References 70 Dermatology—Shell Anatomy Embryonic Development of the Shell Rib Growth Mechanisms Formation of the Solid Carapace Formation of the Plastron Development of the Scutes Dermal Bones Scutes Kinesis—Flexible Skeletal Hinges Fontanels Plastral Peculiarities Physiology Scute Growth Scutes and Age Determination Sexual Dimorphism Role of the Shell in Anoxia Tolerance in Freshwater Turtles Clinical Diseases Scute Anomalies Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s). Clinical Presentation, Treatment, and Prevention. Ankylosis—Distorted Growth Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s). Clinical Presentation and Treatment. Pyramiding Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s). Clinical Presentation, Treatment, Prognosis, and Prevention. Softening of the Shell in Juvenile Herbivorous Tortoises Clinical Significance and Known Etiological Cause(s). Clinical Presentation and Diagnostic Confirmation. Treatm