Lutheran Theology and Contract Law in Early Modern Germany Ca. 1520-1720 (Law and Religion in the Early Modern Period / Recht Und Religion in Der Fruhen Neuzeit)

La 4e de couverture indique : "It is clear that the Lutheran Reformation greatly contributed to changes in theological and legal ideas - but what was the extent of its impact on the field of contract law? Legal historians have extensively studied the contract doctrines developed by Roman Catholic theologians and canonists; however, they have largely neglected Martin Luther, Philip Melanchthon, Johann Aepinus, Martin Chemnitz, Friedrich Balduin and many other reformers. This book focuses on those neglected voices of the Reformation, exploring their role in the history of contract law. These men mapped out general principles to counter commercial fraud and dictated norms to regulate standard economic transactions. The most learned jurists, such as Matthias Coler, Peter Heige, Benedict Carpzov, and Samuel Stryk, among others, studied these theological teachings and implemented them in legal tenets. Theologians and jurists thus cooperated in resolving contract law problems, especially those concerning interest and usury." Contents Acknowledgments Introduction 1 A Lutheran Doctrine of Contract? 2 Research Hypothesis 3 Selection of Sources 4 Method 5 Structure Part I Christian Spirituality and Law: Developments and Sources Chapter 1 Care for the Souls before the Reformation and in the Early Modern Roman Catholic World 1.0 Introduction 1.1 The First Christian Communities 1.1.1 Christian Life in the World 1.1.2 The Jurisdiction of the Church 1.1.3 Monasticism and the Reform of Spiritual Life 1.2 From Augustine to Charlemagne 1.2.1 Pilgrims towards Heaven 1.2.2 From Penitentials to Capitulars 1.3 The Jurisdiction of the Souls 1.3.1 The Judgment of God 1.3.2 Theology of Penance 1.3.3 The forum poenitentiale 1.3.4 Dominicans’ and Franciscans’ summae 1.4 The Specialists of Conscience 1.4.1 Aristotelian Morality 1.4.2 Gerson and the Early Modern Scholastics 1.4.3 Jesuit Moral Theology 1.5 Conclusion Chapter 2 The Engagement of the Lutheran Theologians with Contract Law: Principles and Literature 2.0 Introduction 2.1 The Reformation of Contract Law 2.1.1 Introduction 2.1.2 Luther: Theological and Legal Premises 2.1.2.1 Justification and Moral Actions 2.1.2.2 The Law and the Gospel 2.1.2.3 Contract Law and the Love for Man’s Neighbours 2.1.3 Melanchthon: Theological and Legal Premises 2.1.3.1 The Will, the Law and the Gospel 2.1.3.2 Divine Law and Natural Law 2.1.3.3 Contract Law as Divine Institution 2.1.4 The Contributions of the First Disciples 2.1.4.1 Introduction 2.1.4.2 Rhegius: The Student of Eck 2.1.4.3 Brenz: The Magistrate as Servant of Conscience 2.1.4.4 Aepinus: The Superintendent of Hamburg 2.2 The Struggle for Confessional Identity 2.2.1 Introduction 2.2.2 Ethical Treatises 2.2.2.1 Introduction 2.2.2.2 Chytraeus and the Reformation in Rostock 2.2.2.3 Von Eitzen: Rostock, Hamburg and Schleswig 2.2.2.4 Strigel and the doctrina dulcissima de contractibus 2.2.3 Dogmatic Treatises 2.2.3.1 Introduction 2.2.3.2 Chemnitz: Conserving the Genuine Doctrine 2.2.3.3 Hemmingsen: praeceptor universalis Daniae 2.2.3.4 Gerhard: The First Lutheran Moralist 2.2.4 Biblical Commentaries and Sermons 2.2.4.1 Georg Major: Between Paul’s Letters and Melanchthon 2.2.4.2 Andreae: Chancellor and Provost at the Tübingen University 2.2.4.3 Hunnius: Between Tübingen and Wittenberg 2.3 Penance, Casuistry and Moral Theology 2.3.1 Introduction 2.3.2 Towards a New Type of Penance 2.3.3 Catechetical Books, Manuals for Confessors and Collections of Theological Counsels 2.3.4 Casuistry 2.3.4.1 Balduin and Meisner: The School of Wittenberg 2.3.4.2 König and Dannhauer: Altdorf and Strasbourg 2.3.4.3 Dunte, Prückner and the Pastoral Practice 2.3.5 Moral Theology 2.3.5.1 Georg Calixt and the Theologians of Helmstedt 2.3.5.2 Dürr, Baier and the Theologians of Altdorf 2.3.5.3 Strauch and Schelwig: from Wittenberg to Danzig 2.4 The Challenges of the Modern Natural Lawyers 2.4.1 Introduction 2.4.2 The Defense of the Orthodox Doctrine 2.4.2.1 Alberti and Zentgrav: Reactionary Theologians 2.4.2.2 Osiander, Jäger and the Early Modern Scholastics 2.4.3 Buddeus: Separating Moral Theology from Natural Jurisprudence 2.4.4 Olearius and Haferung: Coming Back to the Tradition 2.5 Conclusion Part II A Biblical Framework for Contract Law: Basic Elements Chapter 1 The Conceptualization of Agreements 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Towards a Consensualist Theory of Contract Law 1.2 The Seventh Commandment: Private Property and Contracts 1.2.1 Introduction 1.2.2 The Defense of Private Property 1.2.2.1 Not a Communion of Goods, but a Private Property for the Neighbour’s Needs 1.2.2.2 Chemnitz’ Refusal of the Arguments in Favour of a Communion of Goods 1.2.2.3 A Divine Order: Luther and Melanchthon’s Definition of Property 1.2.2.4 The Nexus with the Revelation 1.2.3 Contracts are a Creation of God 1.2.3.1 Exploiting the Definitions already in Existence 1.2.3.2 Instruments of Faith and Charity 1.3 The Eighth Commandment: Observance of Agreements 1.3.1 Introduction 1.3.2 Pactum and promissio 1.3.3 Towards a New Conceptualization 1.3.4 The Virtue of Truthfulness 1.3.5 Attempting a Synthesis 1.4 Conclusion Chapter 2 The Seventh Commandment: The Lawfulness and Right Use of Contracts 2.0 Introduction 2.1 The Lawfulness of Business and Contracts 2.1.1 Anabaptists’ Rejection of Business 2.1.2 Luther and Melanchthon’s Reaction 2.1.3 The Response of the Lutheran Orthodoxy 2.2 The ‘Right Use’ of Contracts 2.2.1 Introduction 2.2.2 Faith and Charity 2.2.2.1 Introduction 2.2.2.2 Genesis: Melanchthon and Chemnitz 2.2.2.3 Further Applications: Dieterich, Selnecker, Dürr, Baier and Buddeus 2.2.3 The Protection against Fraud 2.2.3.1 Introduction 2.2.3.2 Luther: sola Scriptura 2.2.3.3 A Detailed Categorization? 2.2.4 Equality in Contracts 2.2.4.1 Melanchthon: Equality as Obedience towards God 2.2.4.2 Chytraeus, Brenz and Gerhard: Specifying the Meaning of Equality 2.2.4.3 Olearius, Osiander and Jäger: Equality as Protection against Fraud 2.2.4.4 Buddeus and Bertling: Equality as a Form of Promotion of the Other Party’s Interest 2.3 Conclusion Chapter 3 The Eighth Commandment: Contractual Fidelity 3.0 Introduction 3.1 Pacta sunt servanda: Towards a New Foundation 3.1.1 Introduction 3.1.2 The Legacy of Canon Law 3.1.3 The Eighth Commandment 3.1.4 Natural Law 3.1.5 The Virtue of Truthfulness and Fidelity 3.1.6 Christian Love 3.2 Moral or Legal Effects 3.2.1 Introduction 3.2.2 The Early Modern Scholastics 3.2.3 Onerous Promises and Gratuitous Promises 3.2.4 The Promisor’s Intention 3.2.5 Every Just and Honourable Promise is Binding in Conscience 3.2.6 Pollicitatio and perfecta promissio 3.3 Formation of the Agreement 3.3.1 Introduction 3.3.2 Requirements for the Obligation 3.3.2.1 Commenting on Cicero: Melanchthon and Von Eitzen 3.3.2.2 Drawing upon the Scholastics: Meisner, Horneius and Jäger 3.3.2.3 Looking at the Virtues: Olearius and Haferung 3.3.3 The Intention 3.3.4 The Expression of Consent 3.3.4.1 Introduction 3.3.4.2 Osiander: The Necessity of a Declaration 3.3.4.3 Jäger: Everything is binding in the Court of Conscience 3.3.4.4 The Types of Declarations 3.3.5 The Necessity of Acceptance 3.3.6 The Subjects of the Agreement 3.4 Vices of Consent 3.4.1 Introduction 3.4.2 Incapacity 3.4.3 Mistake (error vel dolus) 3.4.3.1 Introduction 3.4.3.2 Meisner: A Rational Approach 3.4.3.3 Dannhauer: Obedience to the Scriptures 3.4.4 Duress 3.4.4.1 The Law of Marriage 3.4.4.2 Does Duress Invalidate an Agreement? 3.5 The Performance 3.5.1 Introduction 3.5.2 Moral Impossibility 3.5.2.1 General Clauses 3.5.2.2 Natural Law vs. Moral Theology 3.5.2.3 Noxious or Useless Subject Matter and Changed Circumstances 3.5.3 Physical Impossibility 3.5.4 Rules for the Execution 3.6 From the Will to the Bond: A Brief Gaze towards the Future 3.7 Conclusion Part III Selected Issues from Particular Types of Contract Chapter 1 Sale, Lease and Restitution 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Sale: Roman Law, Aristotle and Orthodox Theology 1.1.1 Introduction 1.1.2 Lawfulness and Structure 1.1.3 Rules Concerning the Goods 1.1.3.1 The Right of Property 1.1.3.2 A Just Measure 1.1.3.3 Defects of Goods I: Following the Scholastics 1.1.3.4 Defects of Goods II: The Rigorist Version 1.1.4 Rules Concerning the Price 1.1.4.1 The Ethics of Pricing: Common Estimation, Public Authority and Conscience 1.1.4.2 Market Abuse I: Conscience, the Holy Scripture and the Magistrate 1.1.4.3 Market Abuse II: Scholastic Argumentation Applied 1.1.4.4 Private Monopolies Are Against Charity 1.2 Lease: Between the Scholastics and the Scriptures 1.2.1 Introduction 1.2.2 Locatio rei and locatio personae 1.2.2.1 Equality in Lease: Melanchthon and His Immediate Followers 1.2.2.2 Horneius, Dürr, Baier and Prückner: Gaining Precision 1.2.3 The Lease of Body (locatio corporis) 1.2.3.1 The Debate among the Early Modern Scholastics 1.2.3.2 Meisner: Four Reasons Against the Prostitute’s Right to Keep Her Salary 1.2.3.3 Osiander: Resuming the Scholastic Approval 1.3 Guidelines for Restitution 1.3.1 Introduction 1.3.2 Theoretical Features 1.3.2.1 Foundation: Augustine, the Scriptures and Rational Arguments 1.3.2.2 An Issue of Salvation? 1.3.3 Practical Features 1.3.3.1 Instructions for Executing Restitution 1.3.3.2 General Exceptions 1.3.3.3 Almsgiving in Place of Restitution 1.3.3.4 Restitution in the Event of Damages to the Debtor and His Family 1.3.3.5 The laesio enormis 1.4 Conclusion Chapter 2 Lending and the Interest Prohibition 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Requisites for a Revolution 2.1.1 Introduction 2.1.2 Scholastic Theologians and Canonists on the Prohibition Against Interest 2.1.2.1 Roman Law and Canon Law 2.1.2.2 A Sin Against Justice and a Breach of Natural Law 2.1.3 The German Contract: A Formidable Weapon for Bankers and Merchants 2.1.3.1 Introduction 2.1.3.2 Antecedents: Partnership and census 2.1.3.3 Two Legal Qualifications 2.1.3.4 The Approach of the Lutheran Theologians 2.2 Pillars for a New Theory of Interest: Luther’s and Melanchthon’s Formulations 2.2.1 Introduction 2.2.2 Luther and the Spirit of the Scriptures 2.2.2.1 Three Essential Innovations 2.2.2.2 The Zinskauf: From Criticism to Moderate Approval 2.2.3 Melanchthon: Turning Back to the Past? 2.2.3.1 The Prohibition Against Interest 2.2.3.2 The Contract with the Clause to Resell 2.2.3.3 A Dialogue with the Canonists: The interesse 2.3 Loans Towards the Poor and Business Contracts: A First Reformulation of the Interest Prohibition 2.3.1 Introduction 2.3.2 Mutuum date nihil inde sperantes: From a Rule of Justice to a Rule of Charity 2.3.2.1 The Rich and the Poor 2.3.2.2 Almosen, leihen und contracten 2.3.3 Loans to the Poor 2.3.3.1 Relaxatio and adflictio 2.3.3.2 The Interest Prohibition Reformulated 2.3.4 The widerkaufflicher Zins 2.3.4.1 The Authority of the Magistrate 2.3.4.2 Divine Ordinance 2.4 Charity and Finance I: Early Guidelines 2.4.1 Introduction 2.4.2 Rhegius: A Change of Perspective 2.4.2.1 So hab erstlich fur augen das natürliche gesetzt und des nehesten liebe 2.4.2.2 Applying the Political Ordinance 2.4.3 Hemmingsen at the Crossroad of Interest Theories 2.4.4 Chemnitz: Trusting only the Scriptures 2.4.4.1 The Real Meaning of usura 2.4.4.2 Tria genera christianorum 2.4.4.3 Lending According to Charity 2.4.4.4 The Contract with a Clause of Redemption (contractus redemptionis) 2.4.4.5 Partnership 2.4.4.6 The interesse 2.5 Charity and Finance II: Systematic Treatment 2.5.1 Reforming the Interest Prohibition 2.5.1.1 Introduction 2.5.1.2 Hunnius and the Rule of Paul – 2 Cor. 8,13 2.5.1.3 Gerhard: Etymology and Context 2.5.2 Widerkaufflicher Zins: Justification 2.5.2.1 Introduction 2.5.2.2 The Political Ordinance as Specification of the Scriptures 2.5.2.3 An Obligation Founded on Gratitude and Natural Law 2.5.2.4 Relaxatio and adflictio 2.5.2.5 Social Utility and Equality with Lawful Contracts 2.5.3 Widerkaufflicher Zins: Application 2.5.3.1 Introduction 2.5.3.2 Condition of the Parties 2.5.3.3 Reciprocal Benefit 2.5.3.4 Remission of Debt 2.6 Corollaries and Reception 2.6.1 Introduction 2.6.2 Natural Law: Two Opposite Opinions 2.6.3 Mons pietatis 2.6.4 Spreading the Good Word 2.7 Conclusion Part IV From Lutheran Theology to Legal Practice Chapter 1 The Dispute of Regensburg (1587) 1.1 The Origins of the Dispute 1.1.1 Prior Events 1.1.1.1 Luther and the German Contract 1.1.1.2 The Dispute of Rudolstadt 1.1.1.3 Nicht als ein Recht, sondern als ein Dispensation: Gallus’ Teachings on the Interest Prohibition and the Imperial Ordinance 1.1.2 The Discussion in Regensburg 1.1.2.1 The Five Zealous Ministers 1.1.2.2 The Theological and Political Response 1.2 Four Sermons for Christians’ Education 1.2.1 A Worried Conscience 1.2.2 Propelling the Lutheran Theory of Interest 1.2.2.1 Introduction 1.2.2.2 The Prohibition Against Interest, Gratuitous Loans and Business Contracts 1.2.2.3 Luther’s Teachings on the Interest Prohibition and the German Contract 1.2.2.4 Crushing the Scholastic Theory of Interest 1.2.3 Only for the Elderly, Orphans, Widows and Other Indigents? 1.2.3.1 Introduction 1.2.3.2 The Example of Justinian I 1.2.3.3 The Example of Justinian II 1.2.3.4 The Difference Between sonderlich and allein 1.2.3.5 The Concept of Need 1.2.4 An Ordinance for Conscience 1.2.5 Conclusion 1.3 Legal Counsels 1.3.1 Introduction 1.3.2 A Reasonable and Just Custom in Regensburg 1.3.2.1 Introduction 1.3.2.2 The Approval of the Public Authority 1.3.2.3 Reasonableness and Natural Equity 1.3.3 The Lawfulness of the widerkaufflicher Zins 1.3.3.1 Introduction 1.3.3.2 The Purchase of Annual Income 1.3.3.3 The Redeemability After a Certain Period of Time 1.3.3.4 The Personal Obligation 1.3.4 Conclusion 1.4 Conclusion Chapter 2 The Contribution of the Jurists 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Matthias Coler: A Bold Claim 2.1.1 Introduction 2.1.2 Defending Interest-Taking as a Matter of Divine Law 2.1.2.1 The Reason of Equality 2.1.2.2 The Risk of Loss 2.1.3 The Law of Justinian 2.1.3.1 A Repudiated Law 2.1.3.2 Reversing Schurpf’s Opinion 2.1.3.3 The New Imperial Law and the Theologians’ Approval 2.2 Peter Heige: Reading the Law with the Eyes of Charity 2.2.1 Introduction 2.2.2 Reinterpreting the Divine Law 2.2.2.1 The Permission to Charge Interest on Loans to Foreigners 2.2.2.2 Tarbith and Neshek 2.2.2.3 Using and Abusing 2.2.3 Defending the Civil Law 2.2.3.1 Compliance with the Divine Law 2.2.3.2 The Power of the Magistrate 2.2.3.3 The Sterility of Money 2.2.4 The Judgment of Conscience 2.2.4.1 Charity as a General Criterion 2.2.4.2 The Qualities of the Parties 2.3 The Impact of the New Theory 2.3.1 Introduction 2.3.2 Wesenbeck’s Paratitla Reconsidered by Bachof von Echt and Hahn 2.3.3 The Influence of the Theologians on the Jurists 2.3.3.1 Denying the Payment of Interest Goes Against Charity 2.3.3.2 The Remission of Debt 2.3.4 Rethinking the Canon Law 2.3.4.1 A New Gaze on the Interest Prohibition 2.3.4.2 The Nature of the emptio reddituum 2.4 Conclusion General Summary 1 Christian Spirituality and Law: Developments and Sources 2 A Biblical Framework for Contract Law: Basic Elements 3 Selected Issues on Particular Types of Contract 4 From Lutheran Theology to Legal Practice Concluding Remarks 1 A Lutheran Theory of Contract Law? 2 The Collaboration between Theologians and Jurists in Regulating Contracts 3 The Lutheran Theory of Interest and the Morality of the Marketplace 4 The Fate of the Lutheran Contract Law: Some Hypotheses Bibliography 1 Primary Sources 1.1 Roman Law, Canon Law, Provincial Law and Imperial Law 1.2 Holy Bible 1.3 Classical Authors 1.4 Late Medieval Authors 1.5 Early Modern Authors 2 Secondary Sources 2.1 Dictionaries and Encyclopedias 2.2 Monographies and Articles "Legal historians have extensively studied the contract doctrines developed by Roman Catholic theologians and canonists; however, they have largely neglected Martin Luther, Philip Melanchthon, Johann Aepinus, Martin Chemnitz, Friedrich Balduin and many other reformers. This book focuses on those neglected voices of the Reformation, exploring their role in the history of contract law. These men mapped out general principles to counter commercial fraud and dictated norms to regulate standard economic transactions. The most learned jurists, such as Matthias Coler, Peter Heige, Benedict Carpzov, and Samuel Stryk, among others, studied these theological teachings and implemented them in legal tenets. Theologians and jurists thus cooperated in resolving contract law problems, especially those concerning interest and usury"--Publisher's website