London’s Waterfront 1100–1666: Excavations in Thames Street, London, 1974–84: Excavations in Thames Street, London, 1974–84

London’s Waterfront 1100–1666: excavations in Thames Street, London, 1974–84 presents and celebrates the mile-long Thames Street in the City of London and the land south of it to the River Thames as an archaeological asset. The argument is based on the reporting of four excavations of 1974–84 by the Museum of London near the north end of London Bridge: Swan Lane, Seal House, New Fresh Wharf and Billingsgate Lorry Park. Here the findings of the period 1100–1666 are presented. Buildings and property development on sixteen properties south of Thames Street, on land reclaimed in many stages since the opening of the 12th century, include part of the parish church of St Botolph Billingsgate. The many units of land reclamation are dated by dendrochronology, coins and documents. They have produced thousands of artefacts and several hundred kilos of native and foreign pottery. Much of this artefactual material has been published, but in catalogue form (shoes, knives, horse fittings, dress accessories, textiles, household equipment). Now the context of these finds, their deposition in groups, is laid out for the first time. Highlights of the publication include the first academic analysis and assessment of a 13th- or 14th-century trumpet from Billingsgate, the earliest surviving straight trumpet in Europe; many pilgrim souvenirs; analysis of two drains of the 17th century from which suggestions can be made about use of rooms and spaces within documented buildings; and the proposal that one of the skeletons excavated from St Botolph’s church is John Reynewell, mayor of London in 1426–7 and a notable figure in London’s medieval history. The whole publication encourages students and other researchers of all kinds to conduct further research on any aspect of the sites and their very rich artefactual material, which is held at the Museum of London’s Archaeological Archive. This is a significantly large and varied dataset for the archaeology and history of London in the period 1100 to 1666 which can be continuously interrogated for generations to come. Table of Contents Summary 1. The report: introduction 2. Period M1 (1100–1200, 1220 on site A) 3. Period M2 1200–1350 4. Period M3 1350–1500 5. Period P1 (1500 to 1666) 6. Essays and specialist reports: the development and character of the waterfront of the City of London, 1100–1666, and suggestions for future research 7. Dating Tables and Artefact Tables 8. Section drawings and supporting files online 9. Summaries in French and German (translated by Madeleine Hummler) 10. Bibliography and abbreviations Index Cover Copyright Page Contents Page Figure 1 The early 13th-century waterfront excavated on the Billingsgate site, 1982,looking north from the river side. The section of revetment on the left (D:Waterfront 14), dated by dendrochronology to about 1235, was later conserved and displayed in t Table 1 Observed changes over time on the study sites in Thames Street Figure 2 Artefacts from reclamation deposits: clockwise from top left, a group of armorial mounts with identical shields, found probably surrounded by coarse cloth on site A, probably mid 15th century, from horse harness or for fitting to swords; a 17th-c Figure 3 The Billingsgate trumpet, the only known example of a medieval European straight trumpet; found during earth-moving on the Billingsgate site, 1984. It may have been lost from a ship in the period 1260–1350 Figure 4 Household fittings and equipment from the Swan Lane site: left, an iron and lead candlestick with birds and possibly human figures, perhaps 12th-century, from a reclamation dump of 1180–1270; right, a fragment of window cames with coloured glass Figure 5 Native and foreign 17th-century pottery from a drain on the New Fresh Wharf site, perhaps from the household of William Widmore, plasterer Figure 6 From a drain on the Billingsgate site full of artefacts, part of the household effects probably destroyed in the Great Fire: a Raeren stonware statuette of a woman with an elaborate head dress and a pewter lid from a Westerwald stoneware mug Figure 7 Detail from the panorama of 1647 by Wenceslaus Hollar, showing cloths hanging from poles on a building on the waterfront side of the Swan Lane (site A) site, probably part of a documented rebuilding of the property in or after 1638 as a house an Figure 8 Seventeenth-century tin-glazed wall tile from site D, from a building probably destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666. These tiles may have been made in the Netherlands or in Britain; they are evidence of strong cultural links with Holland Figure 9 Is this skeleton John Reynewell, mayor of London in 1426–7? In the extension southwards of St Botolph’s in the 15th century, this man and a woman were buried in brick tombs in the middle of the new space, probably facing a new altar. The man may Figure 11 Details from the analysis of human remains at Billingsgate: above, multiple linear enamel hypoplastic defects in the mandibular canines and premolars of skeleton D[301], a juvenile of 6–11 years; below, evidence of Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal H Table 2 The four study sites: their prefixes used in this text, their Museum of London site codes, and addresses at the time of excavation 1. The report: introduction 1.1 The four study sites 1.2 The topographical framework of the excavations: properties and parishes 1.3 The circumstances of the excavations 1974–84 1.4. The pottery and artefacts from the study sites 1.5 Organisation of this report, conventions, abbreviations and codes 1.6 Research questions and comparisons Figure 12 The City of London, showing the four sites in the study (A: Swan Lane, B: Seal House, C:New Fresh Wharf, D:Billingsgate) (1:12,500) Figure 13 The sites of the four excavations south of Thames Street, in their relation to the modern and medieval London Bridges. The Museum of London sitecodes are used to identify the sites: from west to east, SWA81=Swan Lane, SH74=Seal House, NFW74=New Table 3 The wider group of archaeological sites on both banks of the River Thames which are discussed in this report Figure 15 Outline of medieval and post-medieval properties and major topographical features in the study area, from documentary evidence. *=the tenements which lay in the principal excavations of 1974–84 Figure 16 The bridgehead zone on Ogilby and Morgan’s map of 1676 (LMA); the numbering of tenements in this study has been added. Figure 17 Site C: areas of excavation (Areas I to III) and areas watched during building work (Areas IV and V) and lines of sections Figure 18 General plan of medieval tenements 1–8, with the outlines of the Swan Lane (A) and Seal House (B) excavation sites (based on Steedman et al. 1992, fig 53). The medieval property boundaries are approximate, and do not include minor variations. T Figure 19 Site B (Seal House): trench outline and section lines: west side, northern half (Section A, Figure 282); west side, southern half (Section C, Figure 283); east side (Section B, Figure 284) (1:300) Figure 20 Site B (Seal House) during excavation in 1974, looking north Figure 21 Site A (Swan Lane): the standing multi-storey car park (second building from the right) from the southeast, photographed in 1981 as excavation began inside it. The offices built by then on the site of the adjacent 1974 excavation at site B (Sea Figure 22 Site D (Billingsgate): the site after initial cleaning in 1982, showing the outline of pre-Fire buildings largely covered with debris of the Great Fire. These deposits were directly beneath the 19th-century buildings, the cellar walls of which, Figure 23 Sketch produced in 1982 to illustrate the position of the Billingsgate excavation (site D) within the Billingsgate Lorry Park and its relation to the expected sequence of Roman, Saxon and medieval waterfront reclamation beneath (based on excava Figure 24 Destruction of the strata east and south of the site D (Billingsgate) excavation during redevelopment, 1983. This view looks southeast; at the rear is the 1875 Billingsgate Fishmarket building (compare Figure 23) Table 4 Summary of main reclamation dumps and foreshores with finds from the study sites, as dated by the pottery in them and dendrochronology when available, with major groups of pottery and artefacts from other previous London waterfront excavations Table 5 Numbers of medieval small finds from the study sites published in the seven volumes of the Medieval finds series, 1987–98 Table 6 Overall periods for this project, including those to be used in the future report on the periods after 1666 (Schofield in prep) Table 7 Numbering conventions used in this publication, and abbreviations for types of archaeological evidence used in the dating Tables Table 8 Concordance of periods between the four sites, within the four overall periods of the study 2. Period M1 (1100–1200, 1220 on site A) 2.1 The port of London 1100–1200 2.2 Swan Lane (site A) in period M1 (1100–1200, possibly to 1220) Waterfronts and new buildings, period A1 (1150–about 1220) Waterfronts, foreshores and buildings, period A2 (1150–about 1220) 2.3 Seal House (site B) in period M1 (1100–1200) Silting, B:Waterfront 1 and B:Building 1, 1140–c 1180 (period B3) Robbing of B:Waterfront 1, construction of B:Waterfront 2 (c 1180–1200) (period B4) Objects from period M1 from site B 2.4 New Fresh Wharf (site C) in period M1, 1100–1200 Tenement 9 Tenement 10 and the inlet on its west side Tenement 11 Tenement 12 Tenement 13 Tenement 14 2.5 Billingsgate Lorry Park (site D) in period M1 (1100–1200) Tenement 15 2.6 Discussion: the waterfront of London in the 12th century Reclamation, waterfront structures and Thames Street Buildings and their functions on the study sites; pottery and artefacts Figure 25 Finds in Europe of three types of pottery made in the London area in the 12th and 13th centuries: LOND=London-type ware, LCOAR=coarse London-type ware, SSW=shelly-sandy ware (Blackmore and Pearce 2010, fig 3) Figure 26 The City of London around 1100, showing the main features of the city and the excavations in the study area (1:12,500) Figure 27 The north end of London Bridge and St Magnus’s church as rebuilt by Wren, in 1831 by L B Cooke (© British Museum: BM, 1880,1113.1577). The balustrade and octagonal piers of the Bridge are by Dance in 1759; the arches below are 12th- or 13th-cen Figure 28 Two arches at the north end of London Bridge during demolition of the bridge, looking west, 1833 (Anonymous; © British Museum: BM, 1880,1113.5864). These survived; they were probably the details recorded when this part was again exposed in 1921 Table 9 Site A: summary dating of land use units, period A2 (1150–1200, perhaps 1220 for A:Buildings 7 and 13) Figure 29 Site A: period A2 (mid-late 12thc), site plan (1:300). The numbers in circles indicate the general positions of the reclamation and foreshore Groups A32 and A42 Figure 30 An LCOAR EAS early rounded jug, MoL A25849 Figure 31 Site A: objects from Gp A42: iron mounted lock (1:1), and an ash bowl (1:2) ( ) Table 10 Site A: summary of dating evidence for revetments, dumps and foreshores, period A2 (1150–1200, perhaps 1220) Figure 32 Site A: detail of hearth A[329] in A:Building 11 (0.5m scale; east to top). The deposit of fuller’s earth is the lighter layer along the left-hand side of the hearth Table 11 Site B: stratigraphic groups in period M1 (Seal House periods B3 and 4) Figure 33 Site B: period 3 features, comprising B:Waterfront 1 and B:Building 1, 1140–c 1180 (1:150) Figure 34 Site B: base of B:Waterfront 1, looking north, with three of the angled pads on the foreshore in the foreground (0.2m and 0.5m scales) Figure 35 Site B: isometric view of B:Waterfront 1, and (inset) a reconstruction Table 12 Site B: dating Table for period B3 (1140–80 with some intrusion) Figure 36 Site B: period 3, B:Waterfront 2 and B:Building 1, c. 1200 (1:150) Figure 37 Site B: north or landward side of the part of B:Waterfront 2 in the excavation trench, looking south (0.5m scale) Figure 38 Site B: shoe B[451] from Gp B19, reclamation dumping behind B:Waterfront 1; date of deposit 1140–60. Length of vamp stripe 115mm Table 13 Site C: periods of the excavated strata corresponding to period M1 (1100–1200) Figure 39 Site C: plan in the earlier part of period M1 (1100–1200) on Tenements 9 to 14 (Steedman et al. 1992, fig 17, amended) (1:200) Figure 40 Site C: plan in the later part of period M1 (1100–1200, perhaps to 1230) on Tenements 9 to 14, showing C:Buildings 1–5 and the positions of Elevations 1 and 2 (1:200) (Steedman et al. 1992, fig 19, amended). This also shows the positions of the Figure 41 Site C: excavation in progress of the possible timber building above the embankment on Tenement 12, looking south Figure 42 Site C: west wall of C:Building 4, looking north (scale in centimetres). This shows a detail of 12th-century construction: the foundation of chalk was wider, with an offset on the inner side (right). The wall above included other types of stone Figure 43 Site C: extract from drawing of walls on the east side of the site (the complete drawing is Figure 286), showing the southwest corner of St Botolph’s church forming part of the property boundary, with its quoins, and the later east wall of C:Bui Figure 44 Site C: C:Building 5 during excavation, overlain by features of later periods, looking north (2m scale). Key: 1, foundation of west wall of St Botolph’s church (the main part of the church to the east, off the site to the right); 2, east wall of Figure 45 Site C: ashlar walling from the river frontage of Tenement 14 (C:Waterfront 3), of the 12th century, recorded when disturbed during machine excavation for the future building; probably looking south (0.5m scale) Table 14. Site D: periods D6 and D7 (12th century), stratigraphic phases and dating evidence Figure 46 Site D: D:Waterfronts 8 and 9 (Steedman et al. 1992, fig 31) (1:200) Figure 47 Site D: Waterfronts 10–11 and D:Structure 1 (Steedman et al. 1992, figs 35, 37 and 41): A, an inlet in the waterfront of the 11th century is blocked by D:Waterfront 10 (D7.1) between 1144 and 1183, with a drain added (D7.4); B, D:Waterfront 11 i Table 15. Summary of development of the sites in period M1 (1100–1200, about 1220 on site A, latest strata on site C possibly around 1230), and London Bridge (rebuilt 1176–1209) which lay between the two pairs of sites Table 16 Dating evidence and artefacts from period M1 3. Period M2 1200–1350 3.1 The port of London 1200–1350 3.2 Swan Lane (site A) in period M2 (1220–1350) Tenement 1 Tenement 2 Tenement 3 Tenement 4 Tenement 5 Summary of site A in period M2 (1220–1350) 3.3 Seal House (site B) in period M2 (1200–1350) Tenement 6 Tenement 7 Tenement 8 (The Peacock) Summary of site B in period M2 (1200–1350) 3.4 New Fresh Wharf (site C) in period M2 (1200–1350) Tenement 9 (Le Cok On The Hoop; Croskeys) Tenement 10 (later The King’s Arms) Tenement 11 (Freshwharf) Tenement 12 (le Brodegate) Tenement 13 Tenement 14 Summary of site C in period M2 (1200–1350) 3.5 Billingsgate (site D) in period M2 (1200–1350) Tenement 15: Botolph Wharf and St Botolph Billingsgate 1200–1350 Objects found during later earth-moving, 1983–4 3.6 Discussion: the waterfront of London 1200–1350 Reclamation, waterfront structures and the level of Thames Street Buildings and their functions on the study sites; pottery and artefacts Figure 49 Site A: plan of period A3, 1220–50 (1:300). The numbers in circles indicate the general positions of reclamation and foreshore groups A35, A38, A52, A45 and A47 Figure 50 Site A: plan of period A4, 1250–1330 (1:300). The numbers in circles indicate the general positions of reclamation and foreshore groups A49, A56, A58, A108, A61, A55, A64 Figure 51 Site A: plan of period A5, 1300–50 (1:300). The numbers in circles indicate the general positions of reclamation groups A74 and A67 Table 17 Site A: assignments of reclamation and foreshore dumps to individual tenements in period M2 (1200/20–1350), and their dates. A blank in the right-hand column indicates no archaeological evidence from that group. The dates of major deposits are Figure 52 Site A: candlestick from Gp A49 (1:1) ( ). A lower part appears to be missing Table 18 Dating summary for Tenement 1, 1200–1350 Figure 53 Site A: objects from Gp A61: dress accessories; bone chess piece, a pawn; and pilgrim souvenir ( ) (1:1) Figure 54 Site A: objects from Gp A74: dress accessories ( ) (1:1) Figure 55 Site A: objects from Gp A74: buckle, strap-ends, mount with fleur-le-lis decoration, reversible annular brooch, fragment of an ornate pewter circular brooch, copper alloy button, brass ring with glass cameo of a scorpion or crab ( (1:1 Table 19 Dating summary for Tenement 2, 1200–1350 Figure 56 Site A: objects from Gp A74: dress accessory, keys, strike-a-light, pricket, flesh-hook ( ) (1:1) Figure 57 Site A: objects from Gp A74: flagon lid, wooden bowls (1:1); and stave (1:2) ( ) Figure 58 Site A: objects from Gp A74: spoon, knives ( ) (1:1) Figure 59 Site A: objects from Gp A74: shears (1:1); knife and the scabbard it was in [both ], scabbard ( ) (1:2) Figure 60 Site A: objects from Gp A74: scabbard, horseshoe ( ) (1:2) Figure 61 Site A: objects from Gp A74: pilgrim souvenirs ( ) (1:1). Ampulla displays the murder of Becket (left) and the saint himself on the other end. and are souvenirs showing the head reliquary of Becket Figure 62 Object from site A, Gp A74: pilgrim souvenir, Virgin of the Carmelite Friars, Toulouse (height 53mm) ( ) Figure 63 Object from site A, Gp A74: seal matrix ( ) (diameter 31mm). The name S’WALTER [DE] REIGATE reads anti-clockwise from just above the upper slash Figure 64 Object from site A, Gp A74: window came with quarter circle of blue grozed glass in one corner, ( ) (about 150mm by 150mm). The curved cames are doubled, suggesting they formed the corner of a design Figure 65 Object from site A, Gp A55: cased mirror ( ) (1:1) Table 20 Dating summary for Tenement 3, 1220–1350 Table 21 Dating summary for Tenement 4, 1220–1350 Table 22 Summary of site A, period M2 (1220–1350); comparison of archaeological and documentary evidence Table 23 Site B: stratigraphic groups in period M2 (1200–1350) on Tenement 6 Figure 66 Site B: plan of B:Waterfront 3 and B:Buildings 1–2, period M2 (1:300) Figure 67 Site B:B:Waterfront 3, isometric drawing of the structure viewed from the southwest Figure 68 Site B:B:Waterfront 3, elevation of the north, internal side. This side formed the riverwards end of the reclamation unit and would be obscured when the area to be reclaimed was filled in. The two large timbers B[387D] and B[387E] are indicated Figure 69 Site B:B:Waterfront 3, looking northeast. This shows the mortises which may be from previous uses (the rectangular-sectioned block has been inserted by the excavators to support the medieval timber) (0.5m scale) Figure 70 Site B: complete patten (overshoe) from B[467], Gp B31B, 1220–40 Figure 71 Site B: B:Drain 1 looking northeast, in excavation (0.5m, 0.2m scales) Figure 72 Site B: extract from the section drawing of the east side of the excavation, showing B:Drain 1 (context [471]), its connection with B:Waterfront 3 (Waterfront III ) and buildings above (an extract from Figure 284) Figure 73 Site B: objects from period B5.1 (reclamation behind B:Waterfront 3), about 1240, with intrusions: iron handle, fixed iron hook, padlock, wooden bowl, shears, scabbards and a curb bit ( , scales 1:1 , 1:2 ) Figure 74 Site B: adult’s ankle shoe B[484] from Gp 31b, dumping behind B:Waterfront 3 (© Museum of London) (length 230mm) Figure 75 Site B:B:Building 3: hearth B[307] of limestone slabs set in clay, looking east (2m scale) Figure 76 Site B: plan of B:Buildings 4 to 7 in periods B7.1 to B8.1, in context within Tenement 6 (the Black Raven) (1:150). Hypothetical property and building boundaries are shown in dashed lines Figure 77 LOND ROU baluster jug, MoL A27515 Figure 78 Site B: finds from period B7.1 (B54): a cased mirror, knife handle, and scabbards ( ) (1:1 mirror, 1:2 handle and scabbards) Figure 80 Finds from site B, period B7.2: scabbard, casket mount and a stirrup ( 1:1; 1:2) Figure 81 Sketch plan of St Magnus the Martyr church around 1600; there are two possible sites for the medieval tower, and the number of bays and their vaulting in the nave are conjectural Figure 82 Site C: sketchplan of properties around 1350. The boundaries of each property are only approximate Figure 83 Site C: plan of buildings in period M2, 1200–1350 (1:300) Figure 84 Site C: the timber piling in the foundation of the east wall of C:Building 6, looking east. Beyond are the remains of the late Saxon embankment, being excavated at the same time (0.5m scale) Figure 85 Site C: foundations for the east wall of C:Building 7 (towards the top) and of the east wall of C:Building 6 (bottom), looking east. The foundation of the wall of C:Building 6 shows its blocks are arranged to form an arch to the left (0.5m scal Figure 86 Site C: the foundations of C:Buildings 6 and 7, looking northeast; reconstruction Table 24 Summary of site C, period M2 (1200–1350) Table 25 Summary of Site D (Billingsgate) in period M2 (1200–1350) Table 26 Site D: period D8 (1235+), stratigraphic phases and dating evidence. Period D8.2 is now placed after period D9.1, see Table 27 Figure 87 Site D: plan, period D8.1 (left), 8.3–7 (right) (1:200). In these site D plans, the area on the right is a later phase of the plan on the left Figure 88 Site D: plan, period D8.8, D8.11 and D8.9 (1:200) Figure 89 Site D: objects from period D8.1: pin with head of Christ D (diameter 12mm) and leather strap with mounts D (1:1) ( )* Figure 90 Site D: pewter vessel base from period D8.8 D ( ) (diameter 55mm) Table 27 Site D: period D9, stratigraphic phases and dating evidence Figure 91 Site D: plan, period D9.1–D9.3 (1:200) Figure 92 Site D: D:Waterfront 14 (left) and D:Waterfront 15 (right), looking northeast (1m scale) Figure 93 Site D: the north (landward) side of D:Waterfront 14, with assembly marks on the planking enhanced in chalk by the excavators (0.5m scale). The marks differ in character between each bay of planking: in the east (left) they are cut diagonally, Figure 94 Site D: objects from period D9.2: brooch D , balance D , and scabbards D and D ( ) (scales 1:1, scabbards 1:2) Figure 95 Site D: stirrup D from period D9.2 ( ) (1:2) Figure 96 Site D: plan, period D9.4–6 (1:200) Table 28 Site D: period D10 (13th century), stratigraphic phases and dating evidence Figure 97 Site D: plan, period D10.1–4 (left), D10.5–8 (top right), D10.9 (bottom right) (1:200) Figure 98 Site D: objects from period D10.1: strap-end buckle D (length 51mm); antler double-sided composite comb D (length 78mm) ( , ) Figure 99 Vertebrae of a killer whale, context D[3248]: A, as found (100mm scale); B, the end of the largest vertebra showing butchery marks (flattened areas of spongy bone) on left side of anterior articulation Figure 100 Site D: plan, period D10.12 (1:200) Figure 101 Site D, object from period D10.15: a copper buckle decorated with a lion passant regardant D ( ) (length 24mm). There is a trace of gilding Figure 102 Site D: plan, period D11.1–2, 11.8 (1:200) Figure 103 Site D: D:Waterfront 16, looking southeast (0.5m scale). This shows the posts and upper part of the inner cladding; lower left are the deposits infilling behind it, and upper right the reclamation deposits which later sealed it. Above, the ste Figure 104 Site D: the drain in period D11.8: A, extent of the drain in the excavation, looking south (0.5m scale); B, detail of the drain from above, showing pegged half-dovetail joints. On the right is the silt which filled the drain (100mm scale) Figure 105 Site D, plan, period D11.3–11.7 (1:200) Figure 106 Site D, object from period D11.3: pilgrim souvenir D of SS Peter and Paul, Rome ( ) (length 42mm) Figure 107 Site D: plan, period D12.1–12.5 (left) and D12.6 (right) (1:200) Figure 108 Objects from period D12.1: buckle D , strap-end D , brooch D , brooch D , brooch D and cased mirror D ( ) (1:1) Figure 109 The Billingsgate trumpet, BWB83 [335] . The mouthpiece section is 403mm long Table 29 Summary of all tenements in period M2, 1200–1350 Figure 110 Upper Thames Street looking west, near the church of All Hallows the Great, by William Pearson about 1812 (© British Museum: BM, 1880,1113.3349) Figure 111 Lower Thames Street looking east: A, in 1852 (© British Museum: BM, 1880,1113.3408); B, the same view in April 2016 (the west end of St Magnus can just be seen behind the tree on the right) Table 30 Dating evidence and artefacts from period M2 4. Period M3 1350–1500 4.1 The port of London 1350–1500 4.2 Swan Lane (site A) in period M3, 1350 to 1500 Waterfronts and foreshores, period A6 Tenement 1 (the Three Stars) (period M3, 1350–1500) Tenement 2 (Cok on the Hoop/ le Stewehous) (period M3, 1350–1500) Tenement 3 (period M3, 1350–1500+) Tenement 4 (le Katerine While) (period M3, 1350–1500) Tenement 5 (le Mone on the Hop) (period M3, 1350 to 1500) 4.3 Seal House (site B) in period M3, 1350–1500 Tenement 6 (The Black Raven) Tenement 7 (Our Lady) Tenement 8 (The Peacock) Waterfront structures recorded on the watching brief on Tenements 6 to 8 4.4 New Fresh Wharf (site C) in period M3, 1350–1500 Tenement 9 (Le Cok On The Hoop; Croskeys) Tenement 10 (including Rothersgate) Tenement 11 (Freshwharf) Tenement 12 (Brodegate) Tenement 13 Tenement 14 4.5 Billingsgate (site D) in period M3, 1350–1500 Tenement 15 (Botolph Wharf) Period D12.8 to 12.10: second half of 14th century Period D13: mid to late 14th century Period D14: early to mid 15th century Period D15.1 to 15.2 (second half of 15th century, possibly c 1455) The church of St Botolph Billingsgate from the 12th to the early 16th century 4.6 Discussion: the waterfront of London 1350–1500 Reclamation, waterfront structures and Thames Street Buildings and their functions on the study sites; pottery and artefacts Figure 112 Detail of a miniature from a manuscript of the poems of Charles, Duke of Orleans, early 1480s, showing London Bridge and what is suggested to be the arcaded building on the west side of Billingsgate (© British Library, Royal MS, 16 F II folio Figure 113 The crypt of the Chapel of St Thomas on London Bridge, exposed during demolition of the bridge in 1832 (E W Cooke) (© British Museum: BM, 1880,1113.5868). This view looks north, with site C (New Fresh Wharf) in the background. The road surface Figure 114 Site A: plan of site in period A6 (1350–1400) Table 31 Site A: dumps and foreshores in period A6 Figure 115 Site A: objects from Gp A85: buckles, brooch, iron hook (1:1); scabbard (1:2) ( ) Figure 116 Site A: objects from Gp A85: horse buckle (1:2), horse pendant (1:1), horseshoe (1:2), pilgrim badge showing Archbishop Becket, and a secular badge of unknown affiliation; the inscription may read AMI[E] AVE[S], ‘you have a friend’ (1:1) (