London's Roman tools : craft, agriculture and experience in an ancient city

"London was the administrative centre of Roman Britain, and its largest city. After centuries of excavation, Londinium is one of the best understood cities in the Empire. London is also home to one of the most exceptional collections of craft and agricultural tools in the Roman world. London's Roman Tools moves beyond typological analysis to show how Roman artefacts can illuminate the lives of ordinary people. Using a framework of practice theory, it explores the lives of Roman craft and agricultural workers in London, a diverse and changing group which has rarely been examined previously. Also provided is an illustrated catalogue of 837 Roman tools from London. Many are exceptionally well preserved, some are unknown elsewhere, and most have not previously been published. A detailed typological discussion synthesises decades of developments in French and German literature with new insights from the London material."--Back cover (page 4 of cover) Cover Title page Copyright page Subseries page Other titles in the subseries Of Related Interest Dedication Acknowledgements Contents Abstract 1. Introduction: Artefacts at Work 1.1 Roman London: A Brief Introduction 1.1.1 The Development of London 1.1.2 Geography and Zoning 1.1.3 The People of London 1.2 Putting Artefacts to Work: Previous Research and New Approaches 1.2.1 Classical Sources, Secondary Historical Works and Dictionaries 1.2.2 Ironwork Hoard Reports 1.2.3 Museum Catalogues 1.2.4 Studies of Ploughs and Cultivation Tools 1.2.5 Craft Tool and Trade Histories 1.2.6 Artefact Production Studies 1.2.7 Regional Artefact Studies 1.2.8 Excavation Reports 1.2.9 Conclusions 1.3 Material Culture and Society: Bridging the Gap 1.3.1 Artefacts and Technology 1.3.2 Artefacts and Identity 1.3.3 Artefacts, Agency and Practice 1.3.4 Conclusions 2. London’s Roman Tools 2.1 Identifying and Recording London’s Tools 2.1.1 Scope 2.1.2 The Collections 2.1.3 Recording Methods 2.2 The Dataset 2.2.1 Distribution 2.2.2 Dating 2.2.3 Function 3. Manufacture: Style, Provenance and Practice 3.1 Makers’ Marks 3.1.1 Makers’ Names in London Agathangelus Aprilis Hermes/Herma Martial Titulus . . . INI . . . 3.1.2 Discussion 3.2 Provenance and Identity 3.2.1 Evidence of ‘Natives’ 3.2.2 Evidence of Local Manufacture 3.2.3 Evidence of Trade and Immigration 3.2.4 Evidence of the Military 3.3 Form and Manufacturing Practice 3.3.1 Degrees of Standardisation 3.3.2 Cross-Type Styles 3.3.3 Differential Execution 3.3.4 Improvised and Modified Tools 3.3.5 Composite Objects 3.4 Conclusions 4. Woodwork 4.1 Woodworkers in the Roman World 4.2 Woodworking Sites in Roman London 4.3 Harvesting and Supplying Timber 4.4 General Woodwork 4.5 Structural Carpentry 4.5.1 Box Hewing 4.5.2 Splitting 4.5.3 Sawing 4.5.4 A Late Roman Technological Change? 4.6 Carving 4.7 Cooperage 4.8 Joinery 4.9 Lathe-Turning 4.10 Vehicle Manufacture 4.11 Aspects of Ownership 4.12 Workshop Furniture and Embodiment 4.13 Conclusions 5. Agriculture, Horticulture and Gardening 5.1 Growing Plants in Roman Towns 5.1.1 Gardens and Gardeners 5.1.2 Fields and Farmers 5.1.3 Ritual and Social Aspects of Urban Agriculture 5.2 Agricultural and Horticultural Sites in Roman London 5.2.1 Ornamental Gardens 5.2.2 Market Gardens, Orchards and Small Plots 5.2.3 Fields and Farms 5.2.4 The Distribution of Agricultural Tools 5.3 Small Plot Cultivation 5.4 Field Cultivation 5.5 Harvesting 5.6 Garden Maintenance 5.7 Conclusions 6. Metalwork 6.1 Metals and Metalworkers in the Roman World 6.2 Metalworking Sites in Roman London 6.2.1 Metalworking in the London Area 6.2.2 Early Roman Metalworking in London 6.2.3 The Southwark Metalworking Zone 6.2.4 Late Roman Metalworking Sites 6.2.5 Precious Metalworking Sites 6.2.6 The Distribution of Metalworking Tools 6.3 Mining, Making and Supplying Metals 6.4 Casting 6.5 Shaping and Forging 6.5.1 Chasing, Repoussé and Embossing 6.5.2 Vessel Raising 6.6 ‘Machining’ 6.6.1 Lathes in Metalwork 6.7 Gilding 6.8 Soldering 6.9 Assaying, Minting and Official Control 6.10 Aspects of Ownership 6.11 Conclusions 7. Leatherwork 7.1 Leatherworkers in the Roman World 7.1.1 Leather-Makers 7.1.2 Leatherworkers 7.2 Making and Supplying Leather to Roman London 7.2.1 Leather and Skin Supply 7.2.2 Leather-Making Technology Preparation Tanning Finishing/Currying 7.2.3 Leather-Making Practice in London 7.2.4 Tanning and Currying Sites in Roman London 7.3 Leatherworking Sites in London 7.4 Laying-Out and Marking 7.5 Primary Cutting 7.6 Assembly 7.6.1 Nailing 7.6.2 Stitching 7.2.3 Thonging 7.7 Decoration 7.7.1 Openwork Decoration 7.7.2 Impressed and Stamped Decoration 7.7.3 Stitched Decoration 7.7.4 Colouring and Gilding 7.8 Conclusions 8. Masonry and Stonework 8.1 Masons and Stoneworkers in Roman London 8.2 Raw Materials Supply to London 8.2.1 Stone 8.2.2 Ceramic Building Materials (CBM) 8.2.3 Plaster, Mortar and Pigments 8.3 Stone-Shaping and Carving 8.3.1 Rough Shaping 8.3.2 Stone-Carving 8.3.3 Stone-Sawing 8.3.4 Other Stone-Shaping Practices 8.4 Quernstone Maintenance 8.5 Moving Stone Blocks 8.6 Plastering and Mortaring 8.6.1 Mixing 8.6.2 Keying 8.6.3 Applying 8.6.4 Painting 8.7 Conclusions 9. Pottery-Making 9.1 Raw Materials Supply to London 9.2 Potters and Pottery-Making Sites in London 9.3 Pottery-Making Practice in London 9.4 Conclusions 10. Animal Husbandry 10.1 Equids and Grooms in the Roman World 10.2 Equids in Roman London 10.3 Equid Care in London 11. Bone-, Antler-, Ivory- and Horn-Working 11.1 Skeletal Material-Workers in the Roman World 11.2 Skeletal-Material-Working Sites in London 11.3 Skeletal-Material-Working Practice in London 12. Glassworking 13. Conclusions, Reflections and Future Directions 13.1 Tools and Typologies 13.2 New Approaches 13.3 Economy 13.4 Technology and Society 13.5 Beyond This Book 14. Typology 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Adzes (ADZ) Technology Typology Iron-Age Adze Types Roman Adze-Hammer Types 14.3 Anvils (ANV) Technology Typology 14.4 Awls, Bradawls, Bodkins and Scribers (AWL) Technology Typology Type 1 – Solid Diamond-/Octahedral-Shaped Handle Forms Type 2 – Solid Octagonal-Sectioned Handle Forms Type 3 – Solid Square-Sectioned Handle Forms Type 4 – Solid Rectangular-Sectioned Handle Forms Type 5 – Nail Forms Type 6 – Carrot-Shaped Awls Type 7 – Awls with Clenched Tangs Type 8 – Short-Tanged Awls Type 9 – Double-Ended Awls Type 10 – Socketed Forms Awls with Surviving Handles Miscellaneous Awls 14.5 Axes (AXE) Technology Typology Narrow-Bladed Axes (Types 1–10) Bearded Axes (Types 11–17) T-Shaped Axes (Types 18–21) Double-Bladed Axes Metric Analysis Dating 14.6 Bench Knives (BEN) Technology Typology 14.7 Billhooks (BIL) Technology Typology 14.8 Boring Tools (BOR) Technology Typology Handle Attachment Types Tip Types Metric Analysis Tang Size Tip Size 14.9 Brush Holders (BRU) Technology Typology 14.10 Chalk Line (CHA) 14.11 Chisels: Woodworking (CHI) Technology Typology Handle Attachment Types Blade Types Type A Type B Type C Type D Type E Type F Type G Metric Analysis 14.12 Chisels: Cold (COL) Technology Typology 14.13 Chisels: Improvised (CIM) 14.14 Chisels: Hot Cutting (HOT) Technology Typology 14.15 Chisels: Mason’s (MAS) Technology Typology 14.16 Chisels: Thonging (THO) 14.17 Creasers (CRE) 14.18 Crowbars and Clawbars (CBR) Technology Typology 14.19 Croze Irons (CRO) Technology Typology 14.20 Curry Combs (CUR) Technology Typology 14.21 Dies, Stamps and Branding Irons (DIE) Technology Typology Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4 Shaping Dies 14.22 Drawknives and Tanning Knives (DRW) Technology Typology Drawknives Tanning Knives 14.23 Engraving Tools (ENG) Technology Typology 14.24 Files and Rasps (FIL) Technology Typology Tooth Form Blade Form 14.25 Forks (FOR) Technology Typology Handle-Attachment Types 14.26 Gouges (GOU) Technology Typology Tanged Gouge Types Solid-Handled Gouge Types 14.27 Hammers (HAM) Technology Typology 14.28 Hearth Management Tools (HEA) Technology Typology Barley-Twist Hearth Tools Other Pokers Other Fire Shovels 14.29 Hoes (HOE) Technology Typology Type 1 – Adze-Like Hoes Type 2 – Broad-Bladed Hoes Type 3 – Hoe/Picks Type 4 – Hoes/Forks Type 5 – Entrenching Tools Type 6 – Two-Tined Hoes Type 7 – Antler Hoes 14.30 Leatherworking Knives (LEA) Technology Typology Half-Moon Knives Angled Knives Small Knives 14.31 Mattocks/Dolabrae (MAT) Technology Typology 14.32 ‘Ox Goads’ (OXG) Technology Typology 14.33 Palette Knife (PAL) 14.34 Picks (PIC) Technology Typology Quarry Picks Sculptor’s Picks Long-Bladed Picks Millstone Picks 14.35 Plane Irons (PLA) Technology Typology Metric Analysis 14.36 Plough Equipment (PLO) Technology Typology Ploughshares Coulters 14.37 Punches: Fine Metalworking (FIN) Technology Typology 14.38 Punches: Hole Punches (HOL) Technology Typology 14.39 Punches: Hot Punches and Drifts (PUN) Technology Typology Round Punches Square Punches Drifts 14.40 Rake and Harrow Tines (RAK) Technology Typology 14.41 Saws (SAW) Technology Typology Single-Sided Saw-Blade Fragments Double-Sided Saw-Blade Fragments Serrated Knives/Pruning Saws 14.42 Scrapers and Ribs (SCR) Technology Typology Ribs Card Scraper Tanged Scrapers 14.43 Shears (SHE) Technology Typology Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4 14.44 Shovels (SHO) 14.45 Sickles, Reaping Hooks and Pruning Hooks (SIC) Technology Typology Handle-Attachment Types Blade Types Miniature Hooked Blades 14.46 Soldering Irons (SOL) Technology Typology 14.47 Spades (SPA) Technology Typology Type A Type B Type C Type D Other 14.48 Spatulas (WXS) Technology Typology Type A Type B Type C Type D 14.49 Spear-Shaped Spatulas (SPE) Technology Typology 14.50 Other Spatulate Tools (OSP) 14.51 Spuds, Slicks and Barking Knives (SPU) Technology Typology 14.52 Three-Piece Tongs (THR) Technology Typology 14.53 Tongs and Pincers (TON) Technology Typology Size Jaw Form 14.54 Trowels (TRO) Technology Typology Barley-Twist Trowels 14.55 Turf Cutters (TUR) Technology Typology 14.56 Tweezers (TWE) Technology Typology 14.57 Twitches (TWI) Technology Typology 14.58 Wedges (WED) 15. Catalogue and Plates Adzes (ADZ) Anvils (ANV) Awls (AWL) Axes (AXE) Bench Knives (BEN) Billhooks (BIL) Boring Tools (BOR) BOR56 (MoL 1510); drill bit; type F (iron) Brush Handles (BRU) Crowbars (CBR) Chalk Lines (CHA) Chisels (CHI) Improvised Chisels (CIM) Cold Chisels (COL) Creasers (CRE) Crozes (CRO) Curry Combs (CUR) Dies (DIE) Drawknives (DRW) Engraving Tools (ENG) Files (FIL) Fine Metalworking Punches (FIN) Forks (FOR) Gouges (GOU) Hammers (HAM) Hearth Tools (HEA) Hoes (HOE) Hole Punches (HOL) Hot Cutting Tools (HOT) Leatherworking Knives (LEA) Mason’s Chisels (MAS) Mattocks (MAT) Other Spatulate Tools (OSP) Ox Goads (OXG) Palette Knives (PAL) Picks (PIC) Plane Irons (PLA) Plough Furniture (PLO) Punches (PUN) Rake Tines (RAK) Saws (SAW) Scrapers (SCR) Shears (SHE) Shovels (SHO) Sickles (SIC) Soldering Irons (SOL) Spade Shoes (SPA) Spear-Shaped Spatulas (SPE) Spuds (SPU) Thonging Chisels (THO) Three-Piece Tongs (THR) Tongs (TON) Trowels (TRO) Tweezers (TWE) Twitches (TWI) Wedges (WED) Wax Spatulas (WXS) Bibliography Primary Sources Secondary Sources "London was the administrative centre of Roman Britain, and its largest city. After centuries of excavation, Londinium is one of the best understood cities in the Empire. London is also home to one of the most exceptional collections of craft and agricultural tools in the Roman world. London's Roman Tools moves beyond typological analysis to show how Roman artefacts can illuminate the lives of ordinary people. Using a framework of practice theory, it explores the lives of Roman craft and agricultural workers in London, a diverse and changing group which has rarely been examined previously. Also provided is an illustrated catalogue of 837 Roman tools from London. Many are exceptionally well preserved, some are unknown elsewhere, and most have not previously been published. A detailed typological discussion synthesises decades of developments in French and German literature with new insights from the London material." [4e de couv.]