Loaves, beds, plants and Osiris: Considerations about the emergence of the Cult of Osiris (Archaeopress Egyptology)

The emergence of the cult of Osiris is, in most cases, dated to the end of the 5th dynasty, the period in which the name of Osiris appears in writing, and it is commonly held that before this period not a trace of the cult can be discerned. This study is intended to investigate whether this emergence was really so sudden, or if there is evidence to suggest this appearance was preceded by a period of development of the theology and mythology of the cult. One of the most important aspects of the mythology of the cult is the rebirth of Osiris. In the theology of the cult this rebirth was projected on mortal men, and led to the postulation that every human being, whether royal or non-royal, had the possibility to attain eternal life after death. What made this cult even more attractive is that this eternal life was not confined to the tomb, as it used to be for non-royalty. The study is concerned with the rebirth possibilities of non-royal persons and aims to determine the chronological development of the rebirth connotations of the various decoration themes that were used in the chapel of Old Kingdom tombs. The decoration themes that are the subject of the determinations are the group of bed-scenes consisting of the bed-making scene and the marital bed-scene, the development in form and length of the bread loaves on the offering table, the different aspects of the scenes in which the lotus flower is depicted, and the marsh scenes. Table of Contents Introduction Chapter The table scene, a concise discussion of its development Chapter The loaves of bread Chapter About the loaves of bread on the offering table Chapter About the loaves of bread on the offering table Chapter About the loaves of bread on the offering table Chapter The Osiris Cult Chapter The Field of Rushes and the Field of Offerings Chapter The rebirth of the deceased Chapter The sustenance of the K3 of the deceased Chapter Discussion and conclusion Catalogues and Tables General Index Cover Title page Copyright Page Dedication Bibliography and Bibliographical and Technical Abbreviations Contents Page Introduction I. The tomb II. The form of the tombs III. The decoration of the tomb IV. Chronology V. The purpose of this study Chapter One Figure 1. The tomb U-j at Abydos (after Dreyer, U-j, Figure 4). Figure 2. Badarian pit grave 7021 (from Brunton, Badarian, Plate IX). Figure 3. Super- and substructure of tomb S 2302 (Rw-Ab.n; PM, III/2, 404; II.E, temp. Ninetjer (II.3)). Figure 4. A cemetery of mastabas (Junker, Giza I,Plate IVa). Figure 5. Rock-cut tombs at Saqqara. Figure 6. The plan of the rock-cut tomb of Mr.f-nb.f (Saqqara, west of the funerary complex of Djoser (III.2); schematically after www.osirisnet.net; the tomb of Merefnebef). Figure 7. Tarkhan tomb 740 (Petrie, Tarkhan II, Plate XIV). (PM, III/1, 273; Hassan, Giza II, Plate 4) Figure 8. The entrance of the tomb of WAS-PtH Figure 9. The chronology of the Old Kingdom employed in this study. The table scene, a concise discussion of its development Chapter Two (Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, no. 42168). Figure 10. Cylinder seal (dynasty I). Figure 11. Impression of a cylinder seal (dynasty I) Figure 12. Bankfield stele (early dynasty II; Hassan, Giza V, 86-8, Figure 13). Figure 13. The niche stele of princess SHnr (late dynasty II, Cairo Museum JE 44135)(Hassan, Giza V, Figure 15; after Quibell, Saqqara 1912, Plates XXVI – XXVII). Figure 14. Stele of Mr-kA.j (late dynasty I); PM, III/2, 446. Figure 15. Stele of Ḥsjj-Ra (early dynasty III; PM, III/2, 437–9; Quibell, Hesy; Borchardt, Denkmäler I, no. 1426). Figure 16. The false door panel of MTn (early dynasty IV; PM, III/2, 493–4; Hassan, Giza V, Figure 17). Figure 17. The slab stele of Nfr (PM; III/1, 58; early dynasty IV; Hassan, Giza V, Figure 18). Figure 18. Offerings other than loaves. Chapel of Jrrw (PM, III/1, 280; date: V.L – VI.E) (Hassan, Giza III, 63). Figure 19. Offerings placed over the table without supporting shelves (Borchardt, Denkmäler I,1477, Plate 37). Denkmäler I, 1422, Plate 23). Figure 20. Offerings on shelves. (Borchardt, The loaves of bread I. The depiction of the baking process II. Bread moulds and baking II.1. The pre-heating of bread moulds II.2. The bread moulds II.3. The baking process III. The depiction of the form of the loaves Excursus II.1. The protective gesture I. The pre-heating of bread moulds II. The melting of metal III. The grilling and cooking of meat IV. The protective gesture on ships Chapter Three Figure 21. Decoration of the northern wall of the storeroom in the tomb of Ṯjj (PM, III/2, 468-78; plan XLVIII, room V, wall 32). Figure 22. Pre-heating bDA bread moulds. (Tomb of Ra-m-kA.j, PM, III/2, 487-8; date: V.L). Figure 23. Pre-heating bDA bread moulds (Tomb date V.6L-7;). (www.osirisnet.net). of Nj-anx-Hnmw & Hnmw- Htp: PM, III/2, 641-4; Figure 24. Tomb of SSmnfr [IV] (PM, III/1, 223-6; Junker, Giza XI, 159; date V.9-VI.1). Figure 25. Tomb of Jdw (PM, III/1, 185-6; date: VI.E). (Adams, Tell er-Rub’a, Plate 10, no. 1). Figure 26. A 1st dynasty bread mould Figure 27. A 4th – 5th dynasty bDA bread mould (Adams, Tell er-Rub’a, Plate 29, no. 7). Figure 28. The curve of the chronological development of the ratio width/height of the bDA bread moulds (ratios determined in Jacquet-Gordon, Bread moulds, Figures 1-3). Figure 29. The ratios width : height of the moulds Figure 30. The extrapolation of the curve of Figure 28 into the archaic period. Figure 31. The apr.t bread mould (Adams, Figure 32.The sTt bread mould (Adams, Tell er-Rub’a, Plate 29, no. 8). Tell er-Rub’a, Plate 30, no. 8). Figure 33. Pre-heating of apr.t and the sTt bread Leiden, RMO, F.1904/3.1). moulds. Chapel of Ḥtp-Hr-Axtj (PM, III/2, 593-5; Figure 34. The formation of the rim and the'foot' of the loaf (schematic, drawing by author). E. 15591;date: IV.M). Figure 35. The loaves on the offering table on the slab-stele of Nfr.t-jAb.t (PM, III/1, 59-60; Louvre, Figure 36. The two forms of the hieroglyphic sign for 'bread' (Gardiner X1 and X2). Figure 37. Part of the decoration of the northern wall of the storeroom in the tomb of Ṯjj. Figure 38. The (re)-melting of copper (?). The tomb of PtH-Spss (PM, III/1, 340-2; date V.6-7). Figure 39. The (s)melting of ore or metal in the tomb of Mrrw-kA.j (PM, III/2, 525-34; date: VI.E). (PM, III/2, 468 – 78)). Figure 40. Flames around the double crucible (Chapel of Tjj, (Mohr, Hetep-her-akhty, Figure 43). Figure 41. The grilling of poultry. Figure 42. Moussa, Nianchchnum und Chnumhotep, Tafel 37b. About the loaves of bread on the offering table... I. The chronological development of the number of loaves on the offering table I.1. The development during dynasties I, II and III I.2. The development during the Old Kingdom I.3. Some dating checks based on the number of loaves of bread Chapter Four Part I Figure 44. The stele from tomb Helwan 381H8. Figure 45. Resulting mean values (μ) and mean deviations (m) of the number of loaves per period. Figure 46. Mean value of number of loaves with their mean-deviation. Figure 47. Mean value of the number of loaves with the polynomials of the maximum, minimum and midpoint values. Figure 48. The stele of Njt-wa and Njt-nb. Figure 49. The stele of Nj-anx-tt (from Weill, Monuments, 226). (From Borchardt, Denkmäler I, Plate 13). Figure 50. The slab stele of Jt.sn. (Cairo CG 1391) Figure 51. The stele of WD-kA(.j)-anx(.j) (BM 1223). About the loaves of bread on the offering table... I. The length of the loaves of bread (approximate methods) I.1. Introduction I.2. The various approximate systems Chapter Five Part II Figure 52. Description of the criteria connected with the sustenance of the kA of the deceased (Cherpion, Mastabas). Figure 53. The life span of the Cherpion criteria. Figure 54. The life span of the Swinton criteria. Figure 55. The life span of the Bárta stages. About the loaves of bread on the offering table... I. The length of the loaves of bread (determination by measurement) I.1. Preliminary considerations I.2. The chronological development of the length of the loaves I.3. Discussion Part III II. The rim on the loaves baked in a bDA mould III. The indentation in the objects on the offering table III.1. The chronological development of the presence of indentation III.2. The development of the form of the objects on the offering table IV. The chronological developments compared... IV.1.The facade decoration of the tomb of Ḥtpj (AS 20) IV.2. The tomb of KA.j-apr at Abusir IV.3. The tomb of KA.j-m-anx IV.4. The tomb of Skr-Htp Chapter Six (after Junker, Giza I, Figure 31 (page 175)). Figure 56. The determination of the length of the loaves of bread. Figure 57. The chronological development of the length of the loaves on the offering table including the large multi-chambered mastabas in the Teti cemetery. Figure 58. The values of the length of the loaves in Figure 57. Figure 59. The chronological development of the length of the loaves on the offering table, excluding the large multi-chambered mastabas in the Teti cemetery. Figure 60. Loaves baked in a bDA mould standing on the offering table of the slab-stele of Nfr.t-jAb.t (PM, III/1, 59-60; IV.M; Louvre E15591). Figure 61. Loaves on an offering table depicted in the chapel of Nfr and KA-HA.j (PM, III/2, 639-41; V.M – V.L). Figure 62. Loaves with a small indentation. Figure 63. Loaves standing on the offering table in the chapel of MHw (PM, III/2, 619; VI.2). The loaves have a deep indentation. Figure 64. False door panel of ḤAt-nfr (PM, III/1, 178) (Junker, Giza VIII, Figure 92 (page 176). Figure 65. The chronological development of the rim on the in bDA moulds baked loaves. Figure 66. The chronological development of the indentation of the loaves on the offering table. Figure 67. The chronological development of the rim and indentation of the loaves of bread. Figure 68. The development of the objects on the offering table (schematic). Figure 69. Loaves with an intermediary form between phases C and D Figure 70. Reed form hieroglyphic sign Gardiner M 17 (Gardiner, Grammar 481). Figure 71. Detail of the table scene in the tomb of Ḫtj (PM, IV, 154 – 9; 11th dynasty; Beni Hassan). Figure 72. The reed plumes in the chapel of Sanx.wy-ptH (from Kanawati, S’ankhuiptah, Plate 27, (detail)). Figure 73. The various periods according to the dating methods that have been discussed. Figure 74. The various periods according to the discussed dating methods in the tomb of KA.j-apr. Figure 75. The determination of the possible date of the tomb of KA.j-m-anx. Figure 76. The determination of the possible date of the tomb of Skr-Htp. The Osiris Cult I. The archaeological first appearance of the cult II. Dating the tomb of Nfr-xw-w(j) Chapter Seven Figure 77. The first line on the architrave carved in the rock over the entrance of the tomb of Ḥmt-Ra (after Hassan, Giza VI(3), figure 36 (page 48)). 43, Plate XXVIII). Figure 78. Ḥm.t-Ra on the eastern face of the southern pillar (detail Hassan, Giza VI (3),Figure Figure 79. Part of the first line on the architrave over the entrance of the tomb of PtH-Spss (from James, Hiero.texts I, Plate XVII). Figure 80. Surface tomb/chapel in period V.M (after Roeten, Economic decline, Figure 94). Figure 81. Surface tomb/chapel in period V.L (after Roeten, Economic decline, Figure 97). Figure 82. Surface tomb/chapel in period V.E (after Roeten, Economic decline, Figure 54). Figure 83. Surface tomb/chapel in period V.M (after Roeten, Economic decline, Figure 56). Figure 84. Surface/tomb/chapel in period V.L (after Roeten, Economic decline, Figure 60). The Field of Rushes and the Field of Offerings I. Introduction II. The reed plumes III. Field of Rushes versus Field of Offerings Chapter Eight Date: VI), (Junker, Giza IV, Figure 7 (page 223). Figure 85. Tomb of KA.j-m-anx (PM, III/1, 131-3; (Photo Minnesota Department of Agriculure). Figure 86. Reed plume (Phragmites australis) The rebirth of the deceased I. Introduction II. The bed scene II.1. The making of the bed II.2. The marital bed scene III. The objects in the scenes III.1. Furniture III.2. The headrest in the bed making scene IV. The chronological development of the number of tombs with the bed scene V. The flower of the water lily V.1. The description of the plants and the flowers V.2. The alkaloid content of the plant V.3. The flower in the decoration of the chapel VI. Activities in the marshes VI.1. Spearing fish and fowling with a throw-stick VI.2. Rattling (pulling) papyrus Appendix VIII.1. The goddess Hathor Chapter Nine ASAE, 13-14 (1914), Plate 11b). Figure 87. A libation basin and a statue of the tomb of Axtj-mrw-nswt (PM, III/1, 80 – 1) (from tomb owner in front of the false door in the Figure 88. Bed-making scene in the tomb of Junker, Giza IV, Figure 10A). KA.j-m-anx (PM, III/1, 131 – 3; date: VI.1; (Duell, Mereruka, Vol. II, Plate 141). Figure 89. Tomb of Mrrw-kA.j (PM, III/2, 525 – 34) Figure 90. Bed scene Mrrw-kA.j of site 50 in Plates 94-5). Date: VI.1. plan LVI of PM, III/2. (Duell, Mereruka, Vol. I, Figure 91. Bed scene in the tomb of Ppj at Meir (PM, IV, 254). Date: VI.6 – 7(?). Figure 92. The chronology of some items related to rebirth and funeral. 'Covington’s tomb' with the headrest Figure 93. The inventory offering list from mentioned left in the second register from below. Figure 94. The chronological development of the bed-making scene. Figure 95. The flower of the Nymphaea Figure 96. The flower of the Nymphaea caerulea (side view). caerulea (top view). Figure 97. The flower of the Nelumbo nucifera. Figure 98. The chronology of the various depictions of the flower of the water lily (male tomb owners). Figure 99. Harvesting lotus flowers in the chapel of Daw (PM, IV, 244-6). Figure 100. The percentage of tombs with the scene 'hunting in the marshes'. Figure 101. The percentage of provincial tombs with hunting in the marshes scene. (LD, II, 12b; Nb.j-m-Axt, PM, III/1, 230-2). Figure 102. The male version of rattling papyrus (page 67)). Figure 103. Snb (PM, III/1, 101-3) rattling papyrus stems (Junker, Giza V, Figure 15 Figure 104. The ivory table from the reign of Djer (I.3)(Petrie, Royal tombs II, Plate V.1). Figure 105. The interaction of the various characteristics of the goddess Hathor. The sustenance of the kA of the deceased I. Introduction II. The change in mode of sustenance III. Preliminary discussion Chapter Ten Figure 106. The chronological development of the magical food supply (after Roeten, Decoration, Figure X.4 (page 208)) (modified for the offering table). Figure 107. The chronological development of the actual food supply (after Roeten, Decoration, Figure X.5 (page 208)) (modified for the offering table). Figure 108. Curves of the chronological development of the actual and magical supply of sustenance on the western wall of the chapel (after Roeten, Decoration, 209 (Figure X.6), modified for the above mentioned change in the function of the offerings on t Figure 109. Curves of the chronological development of the actual and magical supply of sustenance on the western wall of the chapel (after Roeten, Decoration, 209 (Figure X.6; page 209), without modification for the above mentioned change in the function Discussion and conclusion I. Discussion I.1 The loaves of bread on the offering table I.2. The after-life I.3. Rebirth I.4. Marsh scenes I.5. The cult of Osiris and the Field of Rushes II. Conclusions Figure 110. The situation of the kA and the body of a non-royal person before the introduction of the Osiris cult. Figure 111. The possible change in after-life ideas after the introduction of the Osiris cult. Figure 112. The chronology of smelling the flower of the water lily for male and female tomb owners. Figure 113. The percentage of smelling/holding in the total of gestures with the water lily flower. Figure 114. The connection between the male gestures with the flower of the water lily and the percentage smelling in their gesture in Figure 113. Figure 115. The chronological development of themes possibly connected with the emergence of the Osiris cult. Figure 116. The chronological development of the length of the loaves (after intra Figure 57). Figure 117. The chronology of the themes that can be connected to the Osiris cult. General Index

The emergence of the cult of Osiris is, in most cases, dated to the end of the 5th dynasty, the period in which the name of Osiris appears in writing, and it is commonly held that before this period not a trace of the cult can be discerned. This study is intended to investigate whether this emergence was really so sudden, or if there is evidence to suggest this appearance was preceded by a period of development of the theology and mythology of the cult. One of the most important aspects of the mythology of the cult is the rebirth of Osiris. In the theology of the cult this rebirth was projected on mortal men, and led to the postulation that every human being, whether royal or non-royal, had the possibility to attain eternal life after death. What made this cult even more attractive is that this eternal life was not confined to the tomb, as it used to be for non-royalty. The study is concerned with the rebirth possibilities of non-royal persons and aims to determine the chronological development of the rebirth connotations of the various decoration themes that were used in the chapel of Old Kingdom tombs. The decoration themes that are the subject of the determinations are the group of bed-scenes consisting of the bed-making scene and the marital bed-scene, the development in form and length of the bread loaves on the offering table, the different aspects of the scenes in which the "lotus" flower is depicted, and the marsh scenes.