Literature of Girmitiya : History, Culture and Identity

This book covers various forms of the production of girmitiya culture and literature. One of the main objectives is to conceptualize the idea of girmitya, girmitology, and girmitiya literature, culture, history, and identity in both colonial and postcolonial contexts. This book aims to document the history, experiences, culture, assimilation, and identity of girmitiya community. It also critically analyses the articulation, projection, and production of their experiences of migration and being immigrant, their narratives, tradition, culture, religion, and memory. It also explores how this labour community formulated into a diaspora community and reconnected/created the home (land) and continues to do so in the wake of globalization and Information and Communication Technology (ICT). This book is an attempt to bring the intriguing neglected diverse historical heritage of colonial labour migration and their narratives into the mainstream scholarly debates and discussions in the humanities and the social sciences through the trans- and interdisciplinary perspectives. This book assesses the routes of migration of old diaspora, and it explains the nuances of cultural change among the generations. Although, they have migrated centuries back, absorbed and assimilated, and got citizenships of respective countries of destinations but still their longing for roots, culture, identities, "home", and the constant struggle is to retain connections with their homeland depicted in their cultural practices, arts, music, songs, folklore and literary manifestations. Neha Singh is Assistant Professor in the Department of Languages, Literatures and Cultural Studies at Manipal University Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. Sajaudeen Chapparban is Assistant Professor in the Centre for Diaspora Studies at Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India Contents Notes on Contributors List of Figures List of Tables 1 Literature of Girmitiya: History, Culture, and Identity Introduction Part I: Language, Literature, and Identity Part II: Culture, Music, and Songs Part III: Migration and History Part I Language, Literature, and Identity 2 Language, Literature and Cultural Identity: A Narrative from the Malaysian Tamil Diaspora Introduction Theoretical Outline Formation of Indian/Tamil Diaspora in Malaysia The Advent of Tamil Language and Culture in Malaysia Case Study: 01—The Malaysian Movement for Tamil Culture Case Study: 02—The Tamil Literary Society of Malaysia Case Study: 03—Tamil Foundation Hindu Temples and the Formation of Tamil Cultural Identity in Malaysia Role of Tamil Mass Media in the Promotion of the Tamil Language Construction of Tamil Cultural Identity Through Transnationalism of the Malaysian Tamil Diaspora Case Study: 04—The International Movement for Tamil Culture (IMTC) Conclusion References 3 Poetics of the Crossing: Rerouting Identity in Indian Indenture Historical Background The Concept of Kala Pani and Fragmentation of Identity The Spatial Trope on the Ships The Voyage as a Leveller of Social Hierarchy Reconstitution of Identity on Board the Ships Gendering on the Ships Medical Conditions on Board the Ship References 4 Unutterable Sufferings of Girmitiyas in Amitav Ghosh’s Sea of Poppies References 5 A Critical Reflection on Imperialism, Nostalgia and Traumatic Experiences in Totaram Sanadhya’s My Twenty-One Years in the Fiji Islands Introduction Story of Kunti: Physical, Mental, and Sexual Assaults Story of Narayani: Physical, Mental, and Sexual Assaults Conclusion References Part II Culture, Music, and Songs 6 Tracing the Girmitiya Consciousness in Bhojpuri Folkloric Songs: A Study of Three Bhojpuri Video Songs Introduction Sampling Calcutta Se Chootal Jahaaj Girmitiya Kantraki Fiji Bidesia Methodology Delimiting the Borders of Girmitiya Consciousness in the Songs The Passage In-Between of the Girmitiya: Tropes of Cultural Imagination Transformation of Girmitiya Consciousness in the Songs’ Visuals and Languages Conclusion References 7 The Poetics of Unsung Chutney Singer Lakhan Karriah of Trinidad Introduction Poetics in Song Lyrics Ethnic Literary Theory Lakhan Karriah Literature Review Methodology Theoretical Framework “Doh Doh Sundar Popo” Conclusion Bibliography 8 Preservation of Cultural Heritage: A Case Study of Asians in Mauritius Presence of Indians in Mauritius Socio-Economic Development/Evolution of Asians in Mauritius The Concept of Culture and Heritage Heritage Preservation in Mauritius Preserving the Cultural Heritage of Asians in Mauritius References 9 Relocating Cultural Identity: Pattern and Conditions of Indian Diaspora in Fiji Labor Emigration from India Pattern of Migration The Major Trend of International Migration from India, 1830–2011 Migration of Indentured Labor Indentured Labor System Pathway Kangani and Maistry Migration System Under Kangani Nature and Characteristics of Kangani System Maistry System Free Migration Fiji: History and Population Accommodation and Ration Coolie Lines The Working Conditions of Indian Laborers in Fiji Wages Working Conditions of Women Laborers Picture-Violence Against Women by the Overseers Summary Bibliography 10 Vivid Girmitiya Sacraments and Ganga Talao Introduction Girmitiyas in Mauritius a Transnational Context Literature Review Spiritual and Symbolic Significance of Ganga The Legend Is Associated with the River Ganga in India The Symbolic Interpretation of the Legend Ganga as a Symbolic Representative of Knowledge of Vedas Significance of Ganga Jal in Hinduism Ganga and Varanasi Sacred Hindu Rituals Performed at the River Ganga Ganga Talao in Mauritius Girmitiyas and Establishment of Ganga Talao Sacred Rituals Performed at Ganga Talao Ganga Talao as Sacred Complex Conclusion References Part III Migration and History 11 Girmit as a Global Labour Regime: Essentials, Expansion and Exceptions Need for the New Labourers Indentured Labour Regime: Making of the Girmitiya World Ideological Debates and Dilemmas Regulations of the System Essentials of Indenture Labour Mobilisation Wage Payments Freedom of Mobility Indenture and Capitalist Development Consequences of Girmit Regime Creation of Plural Societies Celebration of Girmitiyas? Transformations of Labour Regime and the Labourers Conclusions 12 ‘Convicts’ as the Indentured Labour: Contribution of Indians to the Development in Southeast Asia Introduction Genesis of ‘Convicts’ as Indentured Labour Origins and Transportation of ‘Convicts’ from Colonial India Strait Settlements of ‘Convicts’ as Indentured Labour Employment of ‘Convicts’ Indentured Labourers in Southeast Asia Contribution of Indian Convicts to the Development in the Southeast Asia Conclusion References 13 The Girmityas and Power Politics: A Genealogical Analysis of Colonial Fiji References 14 Indentured Labour Migration from Bombay Presidency: A Study of Marathi-Speaking Community in Mauritius References Index