Light of devotion : oil lamps of Kerala

Light of Devotion: Oil Lamps of Kerala, an in-depth study of the medieval oil lamps of Kerala and beyond, contributes a new chapter to the history of Indian art. These art objects are primary sources for a broader discussion of the ritual use of Hindu oil lamps, their related and unique cultural history, their motifs, style and subject matter. From an understudied region, they include miniature masterpieces in bronze of figural and mythic representations. Many of the pieces presented are previously unpublished. Hindu traditions and the underlying philosophy of these votive offerings to temple deities represented by the flaming oil lamps will interest those who study history of religions, art history and South Asian studies. The author has included oil lamps found not only in Kerala but also examples discovered in an international array of museums and collections. These lamps and their inscriptions offer a key to unlock the problem of the dating of Keralan bronze sculpture. Cover 1 Map 2 Title Page 3 Copyright Page 4 Contents Page 5 Acknowledgements 13 Note on names of towns 14 Art of Devotion 15 Collections 19 Festivals 20 Bibliography 21 Inscriptions 23 Dating difficulties 29 Figure 1. Rama, Sita and Lakshmana, Kerala, c. 12th century, 6.5 inches, Collection of the late Dinesan Natesan, Bengaluru 17 Figure 2. Oil lamp, Egypt, Mamluk period, c. 1360, Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. F1957.19 18 Figure 3. Wall of lamps, Mahadeva temple, Ettumanar, Kerala, 21 Figure 4. Metal shop employee inscribing a new kindi, Mannar, Kerala 26 Figure 5. Tree--shaped lamp, inscribed 1555, Denver Museum of Art, Colorado, height 25 inches, diameter 15 in, Gift in Life Trust from Mrs. Irene Littledale Downs in memory of William H. Downs, acc. no. 1964.8A-E. Photo Courtesy Denver Art Museum 27 Figure 6. cleaning disassembled oil lamp 31 Classification 33 Names of Some Oil Lamps 34 Stationary Lamps 34 Suspension Lamps 34 Portable Lamps 35 Suspension Lamps 37 Archaeological Museum, Dadigama, Sri Lanka, elephant-shaped oil lamp 37 Gaja/elephant-shaped lamps 37 CSMVS, Mumbai, elephant-shaped lamp found at Jogeshvari, Maharashtra 41 Thrissur State Museum elephant-shaped oil lamp from Thripunithura, Kerala 42 Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, elephant-shaped oil lamp 46 Vimana vilakku/ Temple model-shaped lamps 47 Gaja Lakshmi 53 Mythic Depictions 59 Non-mythic suspension lamps 72 Figure 7. Shasta riding his elephant vehicle, Chola, Government Museum Chennai, 38 Figure 8. Pooram festival, Kerala 39 Figure 9. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp, Dadigama, Sri Lanka, c. 1100-1150, Archaeological Museum, Dadigama, acc. no. 2.12 39 Figure 10. hydrostatic oil release 40 Figure 11. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp with chain figures, Jogeshvari, c. 1100-1150, CSMVS, acc. no. B84. Courtesy of the Trustees of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalya 42 Figure 12. Chain detail figure 11 42 Figure 13. Chain figures detail figure 11 43 Figure 14. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/3, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 43 Figure 15. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/4, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 44 Figure 16. Temple elephant with caparison jewelry and kolam, Kerala 45 Figure 17. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp with Shiva, Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram 46 Figure 18. Temple-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/34, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 48 Figure 19. Arjuna and Shiva hunting a boar, detail of Figure 18 49 Figure 20. Temple-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/2, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 50 Figure 21. Temple-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/1, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 52 Figure 22. Deity in sanctum, detail of Figure 21, Thrissur State Museum 10/1 Department of Archaeology, Kerala 52 Figure 23. Vadakunathan Shiva temple, Thrissur, Kerala 53 Figure 24. Temple-shaped suspension oil lamp, Nepal, 19th century, Courtesy of the Trustees of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalya, 22.2316, 21.75 by 13.5 inches, Sir Ratan Tata Art Collection 54 Figure 25. Gaja Lakshmi suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/36 (reverse of Figure 26), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 55 Figure 26. Shiva Kudumban suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/36 (reverse of Figure 25), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 55 Figure 27. Krishna Fluting, suspension oil lamp, British Museum 1880.4063, (reverse of Figure 28), height 12.5 inches by diameter 10.75, Gift of Richard Payne Knight in 1824, Photo courtesy British Museum 56 Figure 28. Gaja Lakshmi, suspension oil lamp, British Museum 1880.4063 (reverse of Figure 27), Photo courtesy British Museum 56 Figure 29. Gaja Lakshmi, part of a suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 12/12 (reverse of Figure 30), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 57 Figure 30. Processional scene, part of a suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 12/12 (reverse of Figure 29), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 57 Figure 31. Gaja Lakshmi suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/5 (reverse of Figure 32), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 58 Figure 32. Foliate design on suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/5 (reverse of Figure 31), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 58 Figure 33. Gaja Lakshmi suspension oil lamp, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 322 59 Figure 34. Gaja Lakshmi suspension oil lamp, c.14th century, height 15 inches, Natesan Collection, Mumbai 60 Figure 35. Padmanabhaswamy suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/35, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 61 Figure 36. Foliate design on reverse, Thrissur State Museum 10/35 (reverse of Figure 35), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 61 Figure 37. Postcard of Padmanabha in Padmanabhaswamy temple sanctum, Thiruvananthapuram, length 18 feet 62 Figure 38. Padmanabha suspension oil lamp, Honolulu Museum of Art, 14th century, height 15.25 inches, diameter 12 inches, Gift of Christensen Fund, 2001 (10773.1) (reverse of Figure 39) Photo courtesy Honolulu Museum of Art, Hawaii 63 Figure 39. Vishnu on Garuda, suspension oil lamp, Honolulu Museum of Art (reverse of 38) 63 Figure 40. Padmanabha carved on wood temple part, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 65 Figure 41. Procession scene carved on wood temple part, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 67 Figure 42. Shri Poornathrayesa, temple base stone relief figure of Shri Poornathrayesa 68 Figure 43. Padmanabhaswamy, suspension oil lamp, British Museum 1880.1610 (reverse of Figure 45), Photo courtesy of British Museum 69 Figure 45. Rama suspension oil lamp, British Museum 1880.1610 (reverse of Figure 43), Photo courtesy British Museum 69 Figure 44. Bhudevi, c. 14th century, height 10 5/8 inches, Bhansali collection, New Orleans 70 Figure 46. Mounted horse suspension oil lamp, Padmanabhapuram Palace, Thiruvananthapuram, 18th century 72 Figure 47. Horse head suspension oil lamp, 19th century, Dakshina Chitra, Chennai 73 Figure 48. Kuthu on staff in procession, Photo courtesy of Pepita Seth 73 Figure 49. Female acrobat suspension oil lamp, 11 inches, 18th century, Karnataka, Kelkar Museum, Pune 74 Figure 50. Mythical parrot suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/16, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 74 Figure 51. Lotus suspension oil lamp, height 12.5 inches, Thrissur State Museum 10/11, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 75 Figure 52. (Detail of Figure 51), Thrissur State Museum 10/11 with inscription, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 75 Figure 53. Ladies procession with suspension oil lamps, Photo courtesy Pepita Seth 76 Stationary Lamps 78 Mada vilakku/wall niche lamps 78 Vriksha vilakku or Tree-shaped lamps 78 Kavara vilakku, branching lamp 90 Nila or Kuthu vilakku or stambha 92 Lakshmi Deepa/Fortune Lamp 96 Kindi, ritual water pot lamp 102 Figures 54-57. Wall niche lamps, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 79 Figure 60. Wall niche lamp, Dakshina Chitra, Chennai 80 Figures 61. Wooden lamp stands for mada, Dakshina Chitra and Vijayaraghavan collections, Chennai 80 Figures. 58-59 Wall niche lamps, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 80 Figure 63. Tree-shaped oil lamp, Shiva temple, Ernaculum, Photo courtesy Srikumar M. Menon 81 Figures 62. Wooden lamp stands for mada, Dakshina Chitra and Vijayaraghavan collections, Chennai 81 Figure 64. Deepastambha, 16th century, Mahadeva temple, Ettumanar 82 Figure 65. Dharmavijayastambha, Mangalore, Karnataka 82 Figure 66. Flagstaff collar detail including Krishna Venugopala and 21 other gods in relief, 15th century, height 5 inches, diameter 13.75 inches, British Museum 1880.1609 Payne Knight Collection, Photo courtesy British Museum 82 Figure 67. Deepastambha, Thrissur State Museum, acc. no. 10/33, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 83 Figure 68. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp, Sri Mahadeva temple, Sreekovil, Vaikom, Kerala, height 5-6 feet, now retired. 83 Figure 69. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp, 13th century, Kerala, height 53 inches width 31 inches Honolulu Museum of Art, HI, Gift of Christensen Fund 2001, acc no. 106.46.1, Photo Shuzo Uemoto 85 Figure 70. Krishna fluting, (detail of top portion of Figure 69) 85 Figure 71. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp, 14th century, Kerala, height 45.5 in, width 31 inches, Collection of the late Mahadevan Natesan, Bengaluru. 86 Figure 72. Gopis at base, (detail of Figure 71) 86 Figure 73. Peacock tree-shaped ground oil lamp, height 37.4 inches, Thrissur State Museum, 10/18, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 88 Figure 74. Peacock tree-shaped oil lamp, height 48 inches, c. 17-18th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/17, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 88 Figure 75. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp, height 4-5 feet, missing crowning element, Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram 89 Figure 76. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp in temple, Kavara vilakku. 89 Figure 77. Branching oil lamp, height 37 inches, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram 110A 90 Figure 78. Branching oil lamp, Kumaranallur temple, Kerala, 15th century, height 44 inches, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 2005.75, Friends of Indian Art and Oak Lodge Foundation in memory of Barbara Hunt, and the Kathleen Boone Samuels Memorial Fund, Phot 90 Figure 79. figures on shaft (details of Figure 78) 91 Figure 80. Branching oil lamp, height about 5 feet, 16th century, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 91 Figure 81. Branching oil lamp, inscribed on base, 17th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/11, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 92 Figure 82. Ground oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 92 Figure 83. Ground oil lamp, 36.75 inches, Thrissur State Museum 10/24, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 93 Figure 84. Ground oil lamp, c. 17th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/20, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 93 Figure 86. Ground oil lamp with rooster-like crowing element, height 39 inches, c. 18th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/19 Department of Archaeology, Kerala. 94 Figure 85. Ground oil lamp, height 33 inches, c. 17th- 18th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/27, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 94 Figure 87. Ground oil lamp with peahen crowning element, Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram 95 Figure 88. Ground oil lamp with doves crowning element, Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram 95 Figure 89. Ground oil lamp with swan, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 96 Figure 90. Female figural oil lamp, Doll, c. 17th century, height 11 inches, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, acc. no. 574, open access photo 96 Figures 91-92. Female figural oil lamp of a donor couple, 17th century Nayak period, Karnataka, height 86.4 inches, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington, D.C. S 2000.9.1, Photo courtesy Sackler Gallery, and details. 97 Figure 93. Female figural oil lamp, c. 16th century, height 23.5 inches, Crafts Museum, New Delhi, 7/2134 98 Figure 94. Female figural oil lamp, c. 16th century, height 23.5 inches, Crafts Museum, New Delhi, 7/2134, detail of 93. 98 Figure 95. Female figural oil lamp, height 11 inches, 17th century Nayak period, height 11 inches, Karnataka, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, MO, 35-309 99 Figure 96. Female figural oil lamp, lower part, Thrissur State Museum, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 100 Figure 97. Female figural oil lamp, silver with partial gilding, 1850-1890, Karnataka, Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, From the Collection of William K. Ehrenfeld, M.D., 2005.64.180.a-b. Photograph © Asian Art Museum of San Francisco. Size: H. 14 1/2 i 100 Figure 98. Kindi oil lamp, Napier Museum, acc. no. 112, H. 15 ¾, W. 4 1/3 inches 101 Figure 99. Kindi, Radeesh Shetty collection, Bengaluru 101 Figure 100. Kindi, 19th century, Portuguese oil lamp, Ebay 102 Figure 101. Kindi, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 102 Figure 102. Nagathiri, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, 164 104 Portable Lamps 104 Arti/prayer 104 Changalavatta 110 Vanchi vilakku, boat-shaped processional torch 114 Figure 103. Pidi, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, #576 105 Figure 104. Lady, Karnataka, height 4 inches, length 14.5 inches, Shankaranand Natesan collection, Bengaluru 106 Figure 105. Lion/man, Shankaranand Natesan collection, Bengaluru 106 Figure 106. Cambodian lotus arti 107 Figure 107. Tree arti, Thrissur State Museum 13/11, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 107 Figure 108. Arti, drawing from Illustrations of Metal Work in Brass and Copper, Figure 144 108 Figure 109. Arti in ritual use, Meenakshi temple, Madurai 109 Figure 110. Changalavatta in ritual temple procession, Photo courtesy of Pepita Seth 109 Figure 111. Changalavatta, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 111 Figure 112. Changalavatta, drawing from Illustrations of Metal Work in Brass and Copper Figure 125 111 Figures *113-114. Changalavatta, Denver Art Museum, acc.no. ?, credit line ? 112 Figure 115. Oil pot, Thrissur State Museum 13/6, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 113 Figure 116. Oil lamps, Mattancherry Palace, Courtesy Mattancherry Palace Museum 113 Figure 117. Vanchi oil lamp, Vijayaraghavan Collection, Chennai 115 Figure 118. Vanchi oil lamp, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Kerala, 9 ¼ by 15 inches c. 17th century, Stella Kramrisch Collection 1994, 1994-148-109a, b, Photo courtesy Philadelphia Museum of Art 115 Figure 119. Vanchi oil lamp, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 15 by 13.5 inches, acc no. 285, open access 116 Figure 120. Kuthu, cup type torch horse head, Koyikkal Palace Museum, Nedamangadu 116 Figure 121. Kuthu, horse-headed cup type suspended on chain, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 117 Figure 122. ritual use of kuthu oil lamps, photo courtesy of Pepita Seth 117 Extra Parts 119 Figure 123. Elephant with mahout, Kerala, Ashmolean Museum, height 11 inches, EA2013.97, Bequest of Douglas and Mary Barrett. 119 Figure 124. Das Avatar suspension lamp part Thrissur State Museum, 10/12. 120 Figure 125. Ardhanarishvara from plate of suspension oil lamp, Kerala, c.13th century Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, height 3.5 inches, acc. no. 1987.142.348, Samuel Eilenberg Collection, Gift of Samuel Eilenberg, Photo courtesy Metropolitan Museum 120 Figures 126-128. Krishna/Ganesha from plate of suspension oil lamp, Shankaranand Natesan collection, Bengaluru 121 Figure 129. Bala Krishna suspension oil lamp, c. 15th century, Vijayaraghavan Collection, Chennai 122 Figure 130. Krishna Venugopala suspension oil lamp, Vijayaraghavan Collection, Chennai 123 Figure 131. Krishna Venugopala suspension oil lamp part, (Gaja Lakshmi on reverse) British Museum1979.06251, donated by Mrs. Edith Lande, height 3.5 in, width 15.2 inches, Photo courtesy British Museum 124 Figure 132. Birds from oil lamps, collection of Uma Rao, Bengaluru 125 Figure 133. Kartikeya riding his peacock, part of a suspension oil lamp, Kerala, c. 14th century, height 11 ¾ in width 7 ½ inches, Peabody Essex Museum, Salem MA, Gift of Marilyn Walter Grounds, 2002, acc. no. E302038 125 Figure 134. Peacock suspension oil lamp (missing figure of Kartikeya?), height 13.5 inches, with chain 47 inches, Photo courtesy Skinner, Inc. www.skinnerinc.com 126 Conclusion 127 Characteristics 128 South Indian bronze imagery 129 Production features of style 131 Iconography 133 Dynastic arts 135 Figures 135-138. Guardian pair, Thrissur State Museum, from Iranikulam, Kerala, bronze, less than human size. 130 Figures 139-140. Ablution of Venugopala, former Lenart Collection. 131 Figure 141. Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Irinjalikuda temple, 10th century 132 Figure 142. Natesa, Kalmariaditya tandava, height 8 inches, Sotheby, lot 279, 19 Sept. 2008. 134 Figure 143. Yoga Narasimha, Kerala, height 8.5 inches, former Pan Asian collection. 135 Bibliography 138 Index 142 Back cover 144 Indian oil lamps,Kerala art,bronze sculpture of Kerala,Hindu art,Hindu ritual art,Hindu ritual decorative art,Indian art history,South Asian Studies Light of Devotion: Oil Lamps of Kerala, an in-depth study of the medieval oil lamps of Kerala and beyond, contributes a new chapter to the history of Indian art. These art objects are primary sources for a broader discussion of the ritual use of Hindu oil lamps, their related and unique cultural history, their motifs, style and subject matter. From an understudied region, they include miniature masterpieces in bronze of figural and mythic representations. Many of the pieces presented are previously unpublished. Hindu traditions and the underlying philosophy of these votive offerings to temple deities represented by the flaming oil lamps will interest those who study history of religions, art history and South Asian studies. The author has included oil lamps found not only in Kerala but also examples discovered in an international array of museums and collections. These lamps and their inscriptions offer a key to unlock the problem of the dating of Keralan bronze sculpture. Cover 1 Map 2 Title Page 3 Copyright Page 4 Contents Page 5 Acknowledgements 13 Note on names of towns 14 Art of Devotion 15 Collections 19 Festivals 20 Bibliography 21 Inscriptions 23 Dating difficulties 29 Figure 1. Rama, Sita and Lakshmana, Kerala, c. 12th century, 6.5 inches, Collection of the late Dinesan Natesan, Bengaluru 17 Figure 2. Oil lamp, Egypt, Mamluk period, c. 1360, Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. F1957.19 18 Figure 3. Wall of lamps, Mahadeva temple, Ettumanar, Kerala, 21 Figure 4. Metal shop employee inscribing a new kindi, Mannar, Kerala 26 Figure 5. Tree--shaped lamp, inscribed 1555, Denver Museum of Art, Colorado, height 25 inches, diameter 15 in, Gift in Life Trust from Mrs. Irene Littledale Downs in memory of William H. Downs, acc. no. 1964.8A-E. Photo Courtesy Denver Art Museum 27 Figure 6. cleaning disassembled oil lamp 31 Classification 33 Names of Some Oil Lamps 34 Stationary Lamps 34 Suspension Lamps 34 Portable Lamps 35 Suspension Lamps 37 Archaeological Museum, Dadigama, Sri Lanka, elephant-shaped oil lamp 37 Gaja/elephant-shaped lamps 37 CSMVS, Mumbai, elephant-shaped lamp found at Jogeshvari, Maharashtra 41 Thrissur State Museum elephant-shaped oil lamp from Thripunithura, Kerala 42 Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, elephant-shaped oil lamp 46 Vimana vilakku/ Temple model-shaped lamps 47 Gaja Lakshmi 53 Mythic Depictions 59 Non-mythic suspension lamps 72 Figure 7. Shasta riding his elephant vehicle, Chola, Government Museum Chennai, 38 Figure 8. Pooram festival, Kerala 39 Figure 9. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp, Dadigama, Sri Lanka, c. 1100-1150, Archaeological Museum, Dadigama, acc. no. 2.12 39 Figure 10. hydrostatic oil release 40 Figure 11. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp with chain figures, Jogeshvari, c. 1100-1150, CSMVS, acc. no. B84. Courtesy of the Trustees of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalya 42 Figure 12. Chain detail figure 11 42 Figure 13. Chain figures detail figure 11 43 Figure 14. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/3, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 43 Figure 15. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/4, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 44 Figure 16. Temple elephant with caparison jewelry and kolam, Kerala 45 Figure 17. Elephant-shaped suspension oil lamp with Shiva, Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram 46 Figure 18. Temple-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/34, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 48 Figure 19. Arjuna and Shiva hunting a boar, detail of Figure 18 49 Figure 20. Temple-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/2, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 50 Figure 21. Temple-shaped suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/1, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 52 Figure 22. Deity in sanctum, detail of Figure 21, Thrissur State Museum 10/1 Department of Archaeology, Kerala 52 Figure 23. Vadakunathan Shiva temple, Thrissur, Kerala 53 Figure 24. Temple-shaped suspension oil lamp, Nepal, 19th century, Courtesy of the Trustees of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalya, 22.2316, 21.75 by 13.5 inches, Sir Ratan Tata Art Collection 54 Figure 25. Gaja Lakshmi suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/36 (reverse of Figure 26), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 55 Figure 26. Shiva Kudumban suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/36 (reverse of Figure 25), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 55 Figure 27. Krishna Fluting, suspension oil lamp, British Museum 1880.4063, (reverse of Figure 28), height 12.5 inches by diameter 10.75, Gift of Richard Payne Knight in 1824, Photo courtesy British Museum 56 Figure 28. Gaja Lakshmi, suspension oil lamp, British Museum 1880.4063 (reverse of Figure 27), Photo courtesy British Museum 56 Figure 29. Gaja Lakshmi, part of a suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 12/12 (reverse of Figure 30), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 57 Figure 30. Processional scene, part of a suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 12/12 (reverse of Figure 29), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 57 Figure 31. Gaja Lakshmi suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/5 (reverse of Figure 32), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 58 Figure 32. Foliate design on suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/5 (reverse of Figure 31), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 58 Figure 33. Gaja Lakshmi suspension oil lamp, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 322 59 Figure 34. Gaja Lakshmi suspension oil lamp, c.14th century, height 15 inches, Natesan Collection, Mumbai 60 Figure 35. Padmanabhaswamy suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/35, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 61 Figure 36. Foliate design on reverse, Thrissur State Museum 10/35 (reverse of Figure 35), Department of Archaeology, Kerala 61 Figure 37. Postcard of Padmanabha in Padmanabhaswamy temple sanctum, Thiruvananthapuram, length 18 feet 62 Figure 38. Padmanabha suspension oil lamp, Honolulu Museum of Art, 14th century, height 15.25 inches, diameter 12 inches, Gift of Christensen Fund, 2001 (10773.1) (reverse of Figure 39) Photo courtesy Honolulu Museum of Art, Hawaii 63 Figure 39. Vishnu on Garuda, suspension oil lamp, Honolulu Museum of Art (reverse of 38) 63 Figure 40. Padmanabha carved on wood temple part, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 65 Figure 41. Procession scene carved on wood temple part, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 67 Figure 42. Shri Poornathrayesa, temple base stone relief figure of Shri Poornathrayesa 68 Figure 43. Padmanabhaswamy, suspension oil lamp, British Museum 1880.1610 (reverse of Figure 45), Photo courtesy of British Museum 69 Figure 45. Rama suspension oil lamp, British Museum 1880.1610 (reverse of Figure 43), Photo courtesy British Museum 69 Figure 44. Bhudevi, c. 14th century, height 10 5/8 inches, Bhansali collection, New Orleans 70 Figure 46. Mounted horse suspension oil lamp, Padmanabhapuram Palace, Thiruvananthapuram, 18th century 72 Figure 47. Horse head suspension oil lamp, 19th century, Dakshina Chitra, Chennai 73 Figure 48. Kuthu on staff in procession, Photo courtesy of Pepita Seth 73 Figure 49. Female acrobat suspension oil lamp, 11 inches, 18th century, Karnataka, Kelkar Museum, Pune 74 Figure 50. Mythical parrot suspension oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum 10/16, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 74 Figure 51. Lotus suspension oil lamp, height 12.5 inches, Thrissur State Museum 10/11, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 75 Figure 52. (Detail of Figure 51), Thrissur State Museum 10/11 with inscription, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 75 Figure 53. Ladies procession with suspension oil lamps, Photo courtesy Pepita Seth 76 Stationary Lamps 78 Mada vilakku/wall niche lamps 78 Vriksha vilakku or Tree-shaped lamps 78 Kavara vilakku, branching lamp 90 Nila or Kuthu vilakku or stambha 92 Lakshmi Deepa/Fortune Lamp 96 Kindi, ritual water pot lamp 102 Figures 54-57. Wall niche lamps, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 79 Figure 60. Wall niche lamp, Dakshina Chitra, Chennai 80 Figures 61. Wooden lamp stands for mada, Dakshina Chitra and Vijayaraghavan collections, Chennai 80 Figures. 58-59 Wall niche lamps, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 80 Figure 63. Tree-shaped oil lamp, Shiva temple, Ernaculum, Photo courtesy Srikumar M. Menon 81 Figures 62. Wooden lamp stands for mada, Dakshina Chitra and Vijayaraghavan collections, Chennai 81 Figure 64. Deepastambha, 16th century, Mahadeva temple, Ettumanar 82 Figure 65. Dharmavijayastambha, Mangalore, Karnataka 82 Figure 66. Flagstaff collar detail including Krishna Venugopala and 21 other gods in relief, 15th century, height 5 inches, diameter 13.75 inches, British Museum 1880.1609 Payne Knight Collection, Photo courtesy British Museum 82 Figure 67. Deepastambha, Thrissur State Museum, acc. no. 10/33, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 83 Figure 68. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp, Sri Mahadeva temple, Sreekovil, Vaikom, Kerala, height 5-6 feet, now retired. 83 Figure 69. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp, 13th century, Kerala, height 53 inches width 31 inches Honolulu Museum of Art, HI, Gift of Christensen Fund 2001, acc no. 106.46.1, Photo Shuzo Uemoto 85 Figure 70. Krishna fluting, (detail of top portion of Figure 69) 85 Figure 71. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp, 14th century, Kerala, height 45.5 in, width 31 inches, Collection of the late Mahadevan Natesan, Bengaluru. 86 Figure 72. Gopis at base, (detail of Figure 71) 86 Figure 73. Peacock tree-shaped ground oil lamp, height 37.4 inches, Thrissur State Museum, 10/18, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 88 Figure 74. Peacock tree-shaped oil lamp, height 48 inches, c. 17-18th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/17, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 88 Figure 75. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp, height 4-5 feet, missing crowning element, Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram 89 Figure 76. Tree-shaped ground oil lamp in temple, Kavara vilakku. 89 Figure 77. Branching oil lamp, height 37 inches, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram 110A 90 Figure 78. Branching oil lamp, Kumaranallur temple, Kerala, 15th century, height 44 inches, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 2005.75, Friends of Indian Art and Oak Lodge Foundation in memory of Barbara Hunt, and the Kathleen Boone Samuels Memorial Fund, Phot 90 Figure 79. figures on shaft (details of Figure 78) 91 Figure 80. Branching oil lamp, height about 5 feet, 16th century, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 91 Figure 81. Branching oil lamp, inscribed on base, 17th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/11, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 92 Figure 82. Ground oil lamp, Thrissur State Museum, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 92 Figure 83. Ground oil lamp, 36.75 inches, Thrissur State Museum 10/24, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 93 Figure 84. Ground oil lamp, c. 17th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/20, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 93 Figure 86. Ground oil lamp with rooster-like crowing element, height 39 inches, c. 18th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/19 Department of Archaeology, Kerala. 94 Figure 85. Ground oil lamp, height 33 inches, c. 17th- 18th century, Thrissur State Museum 10/27, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 94 Figure 87. Ground oil lamp with peahen crowning element, Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram 95 Figure 88. Ground oil lamp with doves crowning element, Kuthira Maliga Museum, Thiruvananthapuram 95 Figure 89. Ground oil lamp with swan, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 96 Figure 90. Female figural oil lamp, Doll, c. 17th century, height 11 inches, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, acc. no. 574, open access photo 96 Figures 91-92. Female figural oil lamp of a donor couple, 17th century Nayak period, Karnataka, height 86.4 inches, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington, D.C. S 2000.9.1, Photo courtesy Sackler Gallery, and details. 97 Figure 93. Female figural oil lamp, c. 16th century, height 23.5 inches, Crafts Museum, New Delhi, 7/2134 98 Figure 94. Female figural oil lamp, c. 16th century, height 23.5 inches, Crafts Museum, New Delhi, 7/2134, detail of 93. 98 Figure 95. Female figural oil lamp, height 11 inches, 17th century Nayak period, height 11 inches, Karnataka, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, MO, 35-309 99 Figure 96. Female figural oil lamp, lower part, Thrissur State Museum, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 100 Figure 97. Female figural oil lamp, silver with partial gilding, 1850-1890, Karnataka, Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, From the Collection of William K. Ehrenfeld, M.D., 2005.64.180.a-b. Photograph © Asian Art Museum of San Francisco. Size: H. 14 1/2 i 100 Figure 98. Kindi oil lamp, Napier Museum, acc. no. 112, H. 15 3⁄4, W. 4 1/3 inches 101 Figure 99. Kindi, Radeesh Shetty collection, Bengaluru 101 Figure 100. Kindi, 19th century, Portuguese oil lamp, Ebay 102 Figure 101. Kindi, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 102 Figure 102. Nagathiri, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, 164 104 Portable Lamps 104 Arti/prayer 104 Changalavatta 110 Vanchi vilakku, boat-shaped processional torch 114 Figure 103. Pidi, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, #576 105 Figure 104. Lady, Karnataka, height 4 inches, length 14.5 inches, Shankaranand Natesan collection, Bengaluru 106 Figure 105. Lion/man, Shankaranand Natesan collection, Bengaluru 106 Figure 106. Cambodian lotus arti 107 Figure 107. Tree arti, Thrissur State Museum 13/11, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 107 Figure 108. Arti, drawing from Illustrations of Metal Work in Brass and Copper, Figure 144 108 Figure 109. Arti in ritual use, Meenakshi temple, Madurai 109 Figure 110. Changalavatta in ritual temple procession, Photo courtesy of Pepita Seth 109 Figure 111. Changalavatta, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 111 Figure 112. Changalavatta, drawing from Illustrations of Metal Work in Brass and Copper Figure 125 111 Figures *113-114. Changalavatta, Denver Art Museum, acc.no. ?, credit line ? 112 Figure 115. Oil pot, Thrissur State Museum 13/6, Department of Archaeology, Kerala 113 Figure 116. Oil lamps, Mattancherry Palace, Courtesy Mattancherry Palace Museum 113 Figure 117. Vanchi oil lamp, Vijayaraghavan Collection, Chennai 115 Figure 118. Vanchi oil lamp, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Kerala, 9 1⁄4 by 15 inches c. 17th century, Stella Kramrisch Collection 1994, 1994-148-109a, b, Photo courtesy Philadelphia Museum of Art 115 Figure 119. Vanchi oil lamp, Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 15 by 13.5 inches, acc no. 285, open access 116 Figure 120. Kuthu, cup type torch horse head, Koyikkal Palace Museum, Nedamangadu 116 Figure 121. Kuthu, horse-headed cup type suspended on chain, Vijayaraghavan collection, Chennai 117 Figure 122. ritual use of kuthu oil lamps, photo courtesy of Pepita Seth 117 Extra Parts 119 Figure 123. Elephant with mahout, Kerala, Ashmolean Museum, height 11 inches, EA2013.97, Bequest of Douglas and Mary Barrett. 119 Figure 124. Das Avatar suspension lamp part Thrissur State Museum, 10/12. 120 Figure 125. Ardhanarishvara from plate of suspension oil lamp, Kerala, c.13th century Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, height 3.5 inches, acc. no. 1987.142.348, Samuel Eilenberg Collection, Gift of Samuel Eilenberg, Photo courtesy Metropolitan Museum 120 Figures 126-128. Krishna/Ganesha from plate of suspension oil lamp, Shankaranand Natesan collection, Bengaluru 121 Figure 129. Bala Krishna suspension oil lamp, c. 15th century, Vijayaraghavan Collection, Chennai 122 Figure 130. Krishna Venugopala suspension oil lamp, Vijayaraghavan Collection, Chennai 123 Figure 131. Krishna Venugopala suspension oil lamp part, (Gaja Lakshmi on reverse) British Museum1979.06251, donated by Mrs. Edith Lande, height 3.5 in, width 15.2 inches, Photo courtesy British Museum 124 Figure 132. Birds from oil lamps, collection of Uma Rao, Bengaluru 125 Figure 133. Kartikeya riding his peacock, part of a suspension oil lamp, Kerala, c. 14th century, height 11 3⁄4 in width 7 1⁄2 inches, Peabody Essex Museum, Salem MA, Gift of Marilyn Walter Grounds, 2002, acc. no. E302038 125 Figure 134. Peacock suspension oil lamp (missing figure of Kartikeya?), height 13.5 inches, with chain 47 inches, Photo courtesy Skinner, Inc. www.skinnerinc.com 126 Conclusion 127 Characteristics 128 South Indian bronze imagery 129 Production features of style 131 Iconography 133 Dynastic arts 135 Figures 135-138. Guardian pair, Thrissur State Museum, from Iranikulam, Kerala, bronze, less than human size. 130 Figures 139-140. Ablution of Venugopala, former Lenart Collection. 131 Figure 141. Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Irinjalikuda temple, 10th century 132 Figure 142. Natesa, Kalmariaditya tandava, height 8 inches, Sotheby, lot 279, 19 Sept. 2008. 134 Figure 143. Yoga Narasimha, Kerala, height 8.5 inches, former Pan Asian collection. 135 Bibliography 138 Index 142 Back cover 144 Indian oil lamps,Kerala art,bronze sculpture of Kerala,Hindu art,Hindu ritual art,Hindu ritual decorative art,Indian art history,South Asian Studies

Light of Devotion: Oil Lamps of Kerala, an in-depth study of the medieval oil lamps of Kerala and beyond, contributes a new chapter to the history of Indian art. These art objects are primary sources for a broader discussion of the ritual use of Hindu oil lamps, their related and unique cultural history, their motifs, style and subject matter.From an understudied region, they include miniature masterpieces in bronze of figural and mythic representations. Many of the pieces presented are previously unpublished. Hindu traditions and the underlying philosophy of these votive offerings to temple deities represented by the flaming oil lamps will interest those who study history of religions, art history and South Asian studies. The author has included oil lamps found not only in Kerala but also examples discovered in an international array of museums and collections. These lamps and their inscriptions offer a key to unlock the problem of the dating of Keralan bronze sculpture.

This in-depth study of the medieval oil lamps of Kerala and beyond considers these art objects as primary sources for a broader discussion on the ritual use of Hindu oil lamps, their related and unique cultural history, their motifs, style and subject matter. From an understudied region, many of the pieces presented are previously unpublished.