Learning and Memory A Comprehensive Reference. Cognitive Psychology of Memory Volume 2

Permission Acknowledgement, Page xxi.pdf......Page 0 Cognitive Approaches to Memory......Page 8 Organization of the Volume......Page 9 References......Page 11 Varieties of Memory......Page 13 Cherry’s Dichotic Listening Studies......Page 15 The Filter Model and the Debate between Early and Late Selection Theories......Page 16 Working Memory and Attention......Page 18 Attention and Encoding......Page 20 Attention and Retrieval......Page 22 Attention and Implicit Memory......Page 23 Attention and Procedural Learning......Page 24 Concluding Comments......Page 25 References......Page 26 Introduction......Page 29 Memory for Stimuli As Opposed to Ideas......Page 30 Memory Even for Unattended Stimuli......Page 31 Understanding Qualia and Consciousness......Page 32 Eliminating Contamination from Nonsensory Aspects of Cognition......Page 33 Partial-Report Procedures......Page 34 Two Phases of Sensory Memory with Different Rates of Decay......Page 35 Comments on the Future of Research on Sensory Memory......Page 36 References......Page 37 Introduction......Page 39 The Phonological Loop......Page 40 Empirical phenomena......Page 41 A computational model of the phonological loop......Page 42 The phonological loop and language......Page 43 Theory and empirical phenomena......Page 45 The supervisory attentional system......Page 47 Complex memory span......Page 48 The Episodic Buffer......Page 49 Attentional based models......Page 51 The resource-sharing model......Page 52 Overview......Page 53 References......Page 54 Tasks......Page 58 Results......Page 59 Associative chaining......Page 62 Perturbation model......Page 64 Primacy model......Page 65 OSCAR......Page 66 Acknowledgments......Page 67 References......Page 68 Repetition and Spacing Effects......Page 69 Continuity, Discontinuity, and Repetition......Page 70 Judgments of Recency......Page 71 Judgments of Frequency......Page 72 Effects of repetition on nonrepeated items......Page 73 Superadditive effects of repetition on memory......Page 74 Spacing Effects in Memory......Page 75 Deficient-Processing Accounts......Page 76 Encoding-Variability Accounts......Page 77 Multiprocess Accounts......Page 78 Conclusion......Page 79 References......Page 80 Coding Processes......Page 83 The Function of a Code in Psychological Theory......Page 84 Transfer Paradigms......Page 85 Retrieval Cuing......Page 86 Materials Effects......Page 87 Decision Time......Page 88 Orienting Tasks......Page 89 Neural Indices of the Code......Page 90 Intent to Remember......Page 92 Types of Processing......Page 93 Self-generation......Page 94 Distinctive processing......Page 95 Prior Knowledge......Page 96 The Structural Metaphor......Page 97 Working memory......Page 98 Memory systems......Page 99 Process Metaphor......Page 100 Data-driven and conceptually driven processing......Page 101 Summary of Process Metaphor......Page 102 Summary of Coding Processes......Page 103 References......Page 104 Introduction to Imagery and Definitions of Mental Imagery......Page 107 Debate on the Nature of Representations......Page 108 Perceptual and Conceptual Representations: Visual Traces and Generated Images......Page 109 Different Kinds of Mental Images......Page 110 General, Specific, Contextual, and Episodic-Autobiographical Images......Page 111 Paivio’s Dual-Code Theory......Page 112 Kosslyn’s Visual Buffer......Page 113 The Visuospatial Working Memory Approach......Page 114 Paradigms in the Study of Mental Imagery and Memory......Page 116 Cognitive Paradigms of Mental Imagery Processes......Page 117 Neural Implications......Page 119 Imagery Value......Page 120 Educational and Other Applied Implications......Page 121 References......Page 125 Introduction......Page 128 Organizing Principles......Page 129 Organizational Theories......Page 130 Representational Theories......Page 131 Affective Response Theories......Page 132 Hybrid Theories......Page 133 von Restorff’s Original Work......Page 134 The Humor Effect......Page 135 The Word Frequency Effect......Page 136 The Word Length Effect......Page 137 The Picture Superiority Effect......Page 138 False Memory and the Distinctiveness Heuristic......Page 139 The Modality Effect......Page 140 Emotional Words......Page 141 Summary and Conclusions......Page 142 References......Page 144 Mnemonic Processes......Page 148 Mental Imagery......Page 149 The Method of Loci......Page 150 The Peg-Word Method......Page 151 The Keyword Method......Page 152 Categorical and Schematic Organization......Page 153 Summary of Mnemonics and Mnemonic Processes......Page 154 Practical Issues......Page 155 References......Page 156 Introduction......Page 160 Environmental Shape......Page 161 Microgenesis of Spatial Knowledge......Page 162 Hierarchical......Page 163 Spatial Reference Systems......Page 165 Navigation and Spatial Updating......Page 167 Models of Spatial Memory and Navigation......Page 170 How Children Use Objects and Landmarks......Page 171 Cognitive Neuroscience of Spatial Memory......Page 173 Summary and Prospectus......Page 175 References......Page 176 Forgetting and Its Adaptive Value......Page 182 The Characteristics of Forgetting......Page 183 Forgetting’s Mathematical Form......Page 184 Determinants of Forgetting Rates......Page 185 Decay......Page 186 Interference: Trace Degradation......Page 187 Interference: Cue Impairment......Page 188 Cue Availability......Page 190 Retrieval-Induced Inhibition......Page 192 Motivated Forgetting......Page 193 Conclusions......Page 194 References......Page 195 Retrieval Competition......Page 198 Inhibitory Mechanisms......Page 199 The mixed-list paradigm......Page 201 Relearning and interference paradigms......Page 203 Retrieval-practice paradigm......Page 204 Directed Forgetting......Page 207 List-method directed forgetting......Page 208 Item-method directed forgetting......Page 210 Think/No-Think Impairment......Page 211 Beneficial and detrimental effects of cuing......Page 213 Retrieval-induced forgetting......Page 215 Directed forgetting......Page 216 Conclusions......Page 218 References......Page 220 False Memories......Page 224 False Memory for Words: The Deese-Roediger-McDermott Paradigm......Page 225 Eyewitness Suggestibility: The Misinformation Paradigm......Page 228 Verbal Overshadowing......Page 230 Misattributions of Familiarity......Page 231 Imagination Inflation......Page 233 Implanted Autobiographical Memories......Page 235 Connections Across False Memory Paradigms......Page 237 Conclusions......Page 238 References......Page 239 Memory in and about Affect......Page 242 Memory in Affect......Page 243 Affect Priming and Affect-as-Information......Page 244 Processing Consequences of Affect......Page 245 Cognitive Benefits of Mild Dysphoria for Eyewitness Memory......Page 246 Mood Congruence and the Affect Infusion Model......Page 247 Mood congruence in memory......Page 248 Mood congruence in self-judgments......Page 249 Mood congruence in person perception......Page 250 Strengths and Shortcomings of the Affect Infusion Model......Page 251 Memory about Affect......Page 252 Remembering and Forgetting Trauma......Page 253 False and Recovered Memories......Page 254 Underestimation of Prior Remembering......Page 255 Discovered or False Memories?......Page 256 Corroborative Evidence of Abuse......Page 257 Affect priming......Page 258 Affect-as-information......Page 259 References......Page 260 Retrieval Processes in Memory......Page 264 Task Differences - The Role of Retrieval Cues......Page 265 The Encoding Specificity Principle......Page 266 Place-dependent memory......Page 267 Mood-dependent memory......Page 268 The Transfer-Appropriate Processing Framework......Page 270 Explicit versus Implicit Memory......Page 271 Remembering and Knowing......Page 273 Repeated Retrieval......Page 274 Retrieval in a Social Context......Page 278 Retrieval Errors and Other Retrieval Phenomena......Page 281 References......Page 283 Introduction......Page 287 The Paradigm......Page 288 The Objectivity of Subjective Experiences of Consciousness......Page 289 Experimental Manipulations......Page 290 Special Populations......Page 291 Episodic and Semantic Memory Systems......Page 292 Recollection and familiarity......Page 294 Further Empirical Extensions and Theoretical Issues......Page 295 Theoretical Evaluation......Page 303 References......Page 304 Processes Involved in Remembering......Page 308 Retrieval Cues and Retrieval-Encoding Interactions......Page 309 A Schematic Framework......Page 310 Deciding Whether to Initiate or Forgo a Memory Search......Page 311 Choosing a Search Strategy......Page 312 Specifying the Initial Context of Search and Generating Internal Retrieval Cues......Page 313 Evaluating the Correctness of Retrieved Information......Page 315 Inhibiting Wrong/Irrelevant Information......Page 317 Deciding Whether or Not to Report an Answer......Page 318 Deciding on the Grain Size of the Reported Answer......Page 320 References......Page 321 Source Monitoring......Page 326 Underlying Assumptions Regarding Basic Mechanisms of Memory......Page 327 Johnson and Raye’s Reality Monitoring Model......Page 328 Basic Mechanisms......Page 329 Measures of Source Monitoring......Page 332 Temporal Source Monitoring......Page 333 Affect and Source Monitoring......Page 334 Developmental Changes in Children’s Source Monitoring......Page 335 The Neuroscience of Source Monitoring......Page 336 Dual-Process Models of Recognition Memory and the Remember/Know Distinction......Page 337 The Eyewitness Misinformation Effect......Page 338 Other Fluency-Based False Memories......Page 339 The Knew-It-All-Along Effect......Page 340 The Mere Exposure Effect......Page 341 Interpersonal Source Monitoring......Page 342 Falsifiability......Page 343 References......Page 344 Metamemory......Page 349 Domain and cue familiarity......Page 351 Tip-of-the-Tongue States......Page 352 Blocking......Page 353 Judgments of Learning......Page 354 Self-fulfilling prophecy hypothesis......Page 355 Status of theories for the delayed-judgment-of-learning effect......Page 356 Theories of the underconfidence-with-practice effect......Page 357 Function of judgments of learning......Page 358 Remember/Know Judgments......Page 359 References......Page 360 Challenges of Déjà Vu Research......Page 363 Prospective Surveys......Page 364 Physical and Psychological Variables Related to Déjà Vu......Page 365 Physiopathology and Déjà Vu......Page 367 Neurological Explanations......Page 368 Implicit Memory Explanations......Page 369 Double Perception Explanations......Page 371 References......Page 372 Tip of the Tongue Experience......Page 376 Eliciting and Measuring TOTs......Page 377 Priming......Page 378 Partial Target Word Information......Page 379 Resolution Probability......Page 380 Resolution through Cueing......Page 381 Inferential Explanations......Page 382 Age......Page 383 References......Page 384 What Is an ROC?......Page 387 Why Bother with ROCs?......Page 389 High-Threshold Model......Page 390 High-Low Threshold Model......Page 391 Evaluation......Page 393 Signal Detection Models......Page 394 Unequal-Variance Signal Detection Model......Page 396 Two-Dimensional Signal Detection Model......Page 397 Sum-Difference Theory of Remembering and Knowing......Page 398 Evaluation......Page 399 Dual-Process Signal Detection Model......Page 402 Variable-Recollection Dual-Process Model......Page 405 Some-or-None Model......Page 406 Mixture Model......Page 407 Evaluation......Page 408 Alternative Theoretical Frameworks......Page 410 References......Page 412 Introduction......Page 415 Item Recognition for Subspan Lists......Page 416 The Extralist Feature Effect......Page 420 Item Recognition for Supraspan Lists......Page 421 Regularities of Item Recognition......Page 422 Dual-Process Views of Recognition......Page 424 Judgments of Event Frequency......Page 425 Associative Recognition......Page 427 Cued Recall......Page 428 A Comparison of Item versus Associative Recognition and Cued Recall......Page 429 Analyses of Interresponse Times in Free Recall......Page 430 The Search of Associative Memory Model......Page 432 The Search Set......Page 433 Serial Recall......Page 434 Defining the Search Set......Page 436 Contradiction and Knowing Not......Page 437 Temporal Dynamics and Models of Memory......Page 438 References......Page 439 Introduction......Page 443 The ACT Model......Page 446 The SAM Model and Related Models......Page 451 The REM Model......Page 454 Neural Network Approaches......Page 457 Models for Serial Order Memory......Page 460 Concluding Remarks......Page 461 References......Page 462 Associative Retrieval Processes in Episodic Memory......Page 465 Association and Context......Page 466 Associative Processes in Free Recall......Page 467 Retrieval Dynamics in Free Recall......Page 468 Normal Aging Affects Contiguity but Not Recency......Page 470 Long-Range Interitem Associations......Page 472 Memory Errors Reveal Associative Processes......Page 473 Intrusions in Serial and Probed Recall......Page 474 Intrusions in Paired-Associate Recall......Page 475 Associative Processes in Item Recognition......Page 477 Theories of Episodic Association......Page 478 Chaining Theory......Page 479 Working Memory Buffers and Dual Store Theory......Page 481 Hierarchical Association Theory......Page 482 Contextual Retrieval Theory......Page 483 Conclusions and Open Questions......Page 484 References......Page 485 A Taxonomic Distinction: Episodic and Semantic Memory......Page 489 Subjective Awareness......Page 490 Retrieval Mode......Page 492 The Episodic Memory System......Page 493 Converging Evidence for the Episodic Memory System......Page 494 Neuropsychology......Page 495 Functional Neuroimaging......Page 496 Development of Episodic Memory: The Magic Number 4±1......Page 498 Episodic Memory and Mental Time Travel......Page 499 Functional Neuroimaging......Page 500 Is Episodic Memory Uniquely Human?......Page 502 References......Page 504 Semantic Memory......Page 508 Network Approaches......Page 509 Feature Analytic Approaches......Page 513 Concept Learning and Categorization......Page 515 Grounding Semantics in Analyses of Large-Scale Databases......Page 517 Grounding Semantics in Perceptual Motor Systems......Page 518 Measuring Semantic Representations and Processes: Insights from Semantic Priming Studies......Page 519 The Interplay Between Semantics and Episodic Memory......Page 522 Category-Specific Deficits......Page 524 Semantic Dementia......Page 525 Neuroimaging......Page 526 References......Page 528 Introduction......Page 532 Understanding and explanation......Page 533 Prototype view......Page 534 Exemplar view......Page 536 Combined Models......Page 537 Beyond Classification and Featural Representations......Page 538 Category Learning Beyond Classification......Page 539 The Rational Model of categorization......Page 541 SUSTAIN......Page 542 Relational information......Page 543 Knowledge......Page 544 Directions for Providing Integration......Page 545 Problem Solving......Page 546 Problem solving and category learning......Page 547 Language......Page 548 Categorization and cognitive individuation......Page 549 References......Page 550 What Is Language, and What Makes It a Unique Learning Problem?......Page 554 Why Is Language Hard to Learn?......Page 555 The Context of Language-Learning ‘in the Wild’......Page 556 Are There Critical Periods for Learning?......Page 557 Summary......Page 558 What categories are infants prepared to learn? Insights from signed languages......Page 559 What do infants know about words?......Page 560 Beyond Words: Learning Phrase Structure and Lexical-Syntactic Categories......Page 561 New Math: Populating the Lexicon......Page 562 Inferring the Meaning Behind the Words......Page 563 Combinatorial Explosion: Putting Words Together......Page 564 Learning the Nuances......Page 566 Learning the nuances: reference, pragmatics, and implicature......Page 567 Becoming an expert language user......Page 568 Conclusions......Page 569 References......Page 570 Introduction......Page 575 Goals and Structure of the Chapter......Page 576 Transfer Theories at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century......Page 577 Serial Learning Analysis......Page 578 One-component models......Page 579 Transfer and Expertise: Effects of First-Task Practice on Transfer of Paired-Associate Learning......Page 581 Johnson’s Coding Theory......Page 582 An Overview of Production-System Models......Page 584 Kieras, Polson, and Bovair’s Theory of Transfer......Page 585 Singley and Anderson’s Theory of Transfer......Page 586 The Doctrine of Formal Discipline Revisited......Page 588 Summary and Concluding Remarks......Page 590 References......Page 591 Implicit Learning......Page 593 Learning Rules......Page 594 The Instance-Based or Episodic Account......Page 595 The Sensitivity to Statistical Regularities......Page 596 The Phenomenon of Transfer: The Data......Page 597 Explicit inferences during the test?......Page 598 Disentangling rules and abstraction......Page 599 A Provisional Conclusion......Page 600 Adjacent and nonadjacent dependencies......Page 601 Does learning depend on materials?......Page 602 Computing statistics?......Page 603 Are statistical computations a necessary prerequisite?......Page 604 Is attention necessary?......Page 605 The Shanks and St. John sensitivity criterion......Page 606 An intractable issue?......Page 607 The lack of control......Page 608 Processing Fluency and Conscious Experience......Page 609 Summary and Discussion......Page 610 Exploiting our Knowledge about Implicit Learning......Page 611 Discussion: About Nativism and Empiricism......Page 612 References......Page 613 Introduction......Page 618 Influences of Explicit Versus Implicit Memory......Page 619 Priming: Automatic/Independent of Attention?......Page 621 Priming: Modulated by Attention......Page 622 Neural Mechanisms of Top-Down Attentional Modulation......Page 624 Stimulus Specificity......Page 625 Response Specificity......Page 627 Negative Priming......Page 629 Familiar Versus Unfamiliar Stimuli......Page 630 Sensitivity Versus Bias......Page 631 Correlations between Behavioral and Neural Priming......Page 632 Summary and Conclusions......Page 635 References......Page 636 Introduction and Definition of the Field......Page 640 Motor Learning: Acquisition of Procedural Knowledge......Page 641 Technology......Page 642 Two Important Papers......Page 643 Adams’s Theory......Page 644 Schema Theory......Page 645 Fast versus slow actions......Page 646 Learning parameters versus learning programs......Page 647 Contextual Interference......Page 648 Action reconstruction processing......Page 649 Meta-memory misattributions......Page 651 Timing of knowledge results......Page 652 Frequency of knowledge results......Page 653 The roles of knowledge results......Page 654 References......Page 655 The Role of Sleep in Memory Consolidation......Page 658 Stages of Sleep......Page 659 Types of Memory......Page 660 Visual Discrimination Learning......Page 661 Auditory Learning......Page 663 Motor Memory......Page 664 Episodic Memory......Page 668 Sleep Spindles......Page 673 Slow Waves......Page 674 Theta Rhythm......Page 675 Neurohormones and Neurotransmitters......Page 676 References......Page 677 Paradox of Infant Memory......Page 681 Historical Perspectives......Page 682 Visual Recognition Memory......Page 683 Operant Conditioning......Page 684 Deferred Imitation......Page 687 Reminders......Page 688 Reactivation......Page 689 Reinstatement......Page 691 Accessibility......Page 693 Context......Page 695 Latent Learning......Page 696 Spacing Effects......Page 698 Implicit and Explicit Memory......Page 701 Infantile Amnesia......Page 702 Conclusions......Page 703 References......Page 704 The Development of Skilled Remembering in Children......Page 709 Estimates of Long-Term Retention......Page 711 Imitation-based paradigms......Page 712 Bridges to Verbally Based Remembering......Page 714 Memory for salient events......Page 716 The Role of Knowledge......Page 717 Prior knowledge......Page 718 Changes in knowledge......Page 719 Parental reminiscing styles......Page 720 Conversation during events......Page 721 Learning to Be Strategic......Page 723 Rehearsal and Organizational Strategies in the Elementary School Years......Page 725 Context Specificity in Strategy Development......Page 726 Prior knowledge......Page 728 Metamemory......Page 729 Schooling......Page 730 Exploring the Development of Memory......Page 731 References......Page 733 Developmental Disorders of Learning: What Do They Actually Mean?......Page 739 The Concept of Learning Disabilities......Page 740 History......Page 741 Epidemiology......Page 742 Presentation and Diagnoses......Page 744 Etiology......Page 746 Relevant Theoretical Models and Considerations......Page 747 Manifestation and Life Course......Page 748 Treatment, Remediation, Intervention, and Prevention......Page 749 References......Page 750 Autism: Classification and Description......Page 753 History and Background: Accounts of Autistic Learning......Page 754 Learning in the Autism Intervention Research......Page 756 Applied Behavior Analysis and Autistic Learning......Page 757 Autistic Learning in the Cognitive and Savant Literatures......Page 759 References......Page 762 Introduction......Page 767 Separate but Equal......Page 768 A Crucible for Theory Testing!......Page 769 The Psychometric Approach to Memory......Page 770 Higher-stratum memory factors......Page 771 A distinction between STM and WM......Page 772 A distinction between STM and WM?......Page 773 Individual-by-Treatment Interactions in Memory......Page 774 Individual-by-Treatment Interactions within WM Span Tasks......Page 775 Individual-by-Treatment Interactions in the Effects of WM on Other Tasks......Page 776 References......Page 777 Aging and Memory......Page 780 Empirical Findings......Page 781 Short-Term and Working Memory......Page 783 Long-Term Memory: Semantic Versus Episodic Memory......Page 784 Intentional versus incidental learning......Page 785 Episodic memory support by semantic memory......Page 786 Test type......Page 787 Recollection and familiarity......Page 788 False memory......Page 789 Prospective memory......Page 790 Attentional resource limitations......Page 791 Capacity (working memory) limitations......Page 793 Associative-binding deficit approach......Page 794 An Integrated View......Page 795 Positive Modulators of Older Adults’ Episodic Memory Performance......Page 797 Summary......Page 798 References......Page 799 Superior Memory of Mnemonists and Experts in Various Domains......Page 802 Brief Historical Background......Page 803 The Role of Meaningful Associations in Superior Memory Performance......Page 805 Acquisition of Exceptional Memory through Practice and Training......Page 807 Superior Memory of Experts and Their Superior Performance on Representative Tasks......Page 808 References......Page 809 Eyewitness Identification......Page 811 Breadth of Research on Eyewitness Memory......Page 812 Exposure Time......Page 814 Own-Race Bias......Page 815 Stress Experienced by the Eyewitness......Page 816 Weapon Focus......Page 817 Eyewitness Confidence......Page 818 The Application of Estimator Variables: Expert Testimony......Page 819 Blind Administration of Lineups......Page 820 Filler Selection......Page 821 Lineup Presentation......Page 822 Postidentification Feedback......Page 824 General Conclusions......Page 826 References......Page 827 The Importance of Prospective Memory in Everyday Life......Page 832 Nonlaboratory Paradigms......Page 834 Laboratory Paradigms......Page 835 Event-Based Prospective Memory......Page 836 Retrieval of Prospective Memories: Retrieval Without an Explicit Request to Remember......Page 837 Spontaneous Retrieval Theory......Page 838 Multiprocess Theory......Page 840 Storage of Prospective Memories: Do They Enjoy a Privileged Status in Memory?......Page 842 Associative Encoding......Page 843 Similarities and Differences Between Prospective and Retrospective Memory......Page 845 Development and Prospective Memory......Page 846 Prospective Memory in Children......Page 847 Prospective Memory in Older Adults......Page 848 Neuropsychology......Page 849 Functional Neuroimaging......Page 850 Electrophysiology......Page 851 References......Page 853 A Brief Biography of Autobiographical Memory Research......Page 858 The Representation of Autobiographical Knowledge in Long-Term Memory......Page 860 Episodic Memory......Page 864 Self-Defining Memories......Page 866 Self-Images......Page 867 The Life Span Distribution of Autobiographical Memories......Page 868 References......Page 871 Social Memory Processes......Page 875 The Effects of the Present on Recall......Page 876 A Consistency Bias in Recall......Page 877 Motivated Recall......Page 878 The Perception of Self-Improvement......Page 880 Mistaking Change in Self for Change in the World......Page 881 Subjective Time......Page 882 Collaborative Memory......Page 883 Controlling and Transmitting Memories......Page 885 References......Page 887 Collective Memory......Page 891 Collective Memory as Social Framing......Page 892 Collective Memory in the Social Construction of Groups......Page 893 Collective Memory as Semiotic Distribution......Page 897 References......Page 901 Editor-in-Chief......Page 2 Volume 4......Page 3 FOREWORD......Page 4 PREFACE......Page 5 Permission Acknowledgement......Page 7