La metamorfosis de la cuestión social (1995)

The definitive step-by step resource for qualitative and ethnographic research Qualitative Research Methods: Collecting Evidence, Crafting Analysis, Communicating Impact is a comprehensive guide on both the theoretical foundations and practical application of qualitative methodology. Adopting a phronetic-iterative approach, this foundational book leads readers through the chronological progression of a qualitative research project, from designing a study and collecting and analyzing data to developing theories and effectively communicating the results--allowing readers to employ qualitative methods in their projects as they follow each chapter. Coverage of topics such as qualitative theories, ethics, sampling, interview techniques, qualitative quality, and advice on practical fieldwork provides clear and concise guidance on how to design and conduct sound research projects. Easy-to-follow instructions on iterative qualitative data analysis explain how to organize, code, interpret, make claims, and build theory. Throughout, the author offers her own backstage stories about fieldwork, analysis, drafting, writing, and publishing, revealing the emotional and humorous aspects of practicing qualitative methods. Now in its second edition, this thorough and informative text includes new and expanded sections on topics including post-qualitative research, phenomenology, textual analysis and cultural studies, gaining access to elite and difficult to access populations, on persuasive writing, novel interviewing approaches, and more. Numerous examples, case studies, activities, and discussion questions have been updated to reflect current research and ensure contemporary relevance. Written in an engaging and accessible narrative style by an acclaimed scholar and researcher in the field Offers new and updated examples of coding and qualitative analysis, full-color photos and illustrations, and a companion instructor website Synthesizes the most up-to-date multidisciplinary literature on qualitative research methods including seven main approaches to qualitative inquiry: grounded theory, case study, ethnography, phenomenology, narrative and autoethnography, participatory action research, and arts-based research Presents innovative qualitative data collection methods and modern representation strategies, such as virtual ethnography, photo-voice, and mobile interviewing Qualitative Research Methods: Collecting Evidence, Crafting Analysis, Communicating Impact is an ideal resource for undergraduate and graduate students, instructors, and faculty across multiple disciplines including the social sciences, healthcare, education, management, and the humanities, and for practitioners seeking expert guidance on practical qualitative methods. About the website ......Page 4 Title Page ......Page 5 Copyright Page......Page 6 Contents......Page 9 Detailed Contents......Page 10 Preface: Is this book for me?......Page 18 Chapter 1 Developing contextual research that matters......Page 23 Self-reflexivity ......Page 24 Thick description......Page 25 How qualitative research is distinct from quantitative research......Page 26 A phronetic approach: doing qualitative research that matters......Page 28 Strengths of qualitative research......Page 29 Qualitative research is useful in a variety of jobs, settings, and disciplinary foci......Page 30 Exercise 1.1 Interviewing a friend, colleague, or classmate......Page 31 Moving from ideas to sites, settings, and participants......Page 33 Sources of research ideas......Page 34 Exercise 1.2 Field/site/participant brainstorm......Page 35 Consider This 1.1 Sources of research ideas......Page 36 Compatibility, yield, suitability, and feasibility......Page 37 Researcher’s Notepad 1.1 Negotiating challenges with rare or hidden populations......Page 39 Moving toward a research question......Page 40 Considering collaboration......Page 42 Exercise 1.3 Published examples of research questions......Page 43 In summary......Page 45 Key Terms......Page 46 Chapter 2 Entering the conversation of qualitative research......Page 47 Inductive/emic, deductive/etic, and abductive/iterative approaches......Page 48 Sensitizing concepts......Page 51 A complex focus on the whole......Page 52 Thick description......Page 53 A sampling of theoretical approaches that commonly use qualitative methods......Page 54 Symbolic interactionism......Page 55 Consider This 2.1 How do I know myself?......Page 57 Structuration theory......Page 58 Consider This 2.2 Why am I standing in line?......Page 59 Sensemaking......Page 60 The early days......Page 62 Recent history in academia and the private sector......Page 63 Current conversations: ethics, post-qualitative research, big data ......Page 64 In summary......Page 66 Key Terms......Page 67 Chapter 3 Paradigmatic reflections and qualitative research territories......Page 70 Positivist and post‐positivist paradigms......Page 71 Interpretive paradigm......Page 73 Critical paradigm......Page 74 Postmodern and other “post” paradigms......Page 77 Consider This 3.1 Whose stylistic rules?......Page 79 Paradigmatic complexities and intersections......Page 80 Exercise 3.2 Assumptions of paradigmatic approaches......Page 81 Case study......Page 83 Grounded theory......Page 84 Ethnography and ethnography of communication......Page 85 Phenomenology......Page 87 Participatory action research......Page 89 Narrative inquiry and autoethnography......Page 91 Creative, performative, and arts‐based approaches......Page 92 In summary......Page 93 Key Terms......Page 94 Chapter 4 Research design: Sampling, research proposals, ethics, and IRB......Page 97 The value of fieldwork and “participant witnessing”......Page 98 The value of interviews......Page 100 Consider This 4.1 Yin and yang: taijitu......Page 101 The value of textual analysis and cultural studies......Page 102 The value of visual and arts‐based materials......Page 103 Random samples and representative samples......Page 104 Maximum variation samples......Page 105 Typical, extreme, deviant, and critical incident samples......Page 106 How and when to choose your sample......Page 108 Ethics and institutional review boards (IRB)......Page 109 Research instruments, informed consent, and confidentiality......Page 110 Different levels of ethical risk and IRB review......Page 111 The quirks of IRB......Page 112 Tips and Tools 4.2 Research proposal components......Page 114 Title, abstract, and key words......Page 115 Introduction/rationale......Page 116 Exercise 4.1 Conceptual cocktail party......Page 117 Literature review/conceptual framework......Page 118 Research questions/foci......Page 119 Tips and Tools 4.3 What belongs in a qualitative methods section?......Page 120 Tips and Tools 4.4 What to include in a qualitative project budget......Page 121 In summary......Page 122 Key Terms......Page 123 Chapter 5 Negotiating access and exploring the scene......Page 126 Riding my mentor’s coattails: Citywest 911 emergency call-takers ......Page 127 Becoming a full participant: the Radiant Sun cruise ship......Page 128 Entering a closed organization: Women’s Minimum and Nouveau Jail......Page 129 Accessing an elite interviewee population surrounding a delicate topic......Page 130 Do some homework before approaching the scene......Page 132 Please don’t reject me! Seeking research permission......Page 133 Researcher’s Notepad 5.2 Sample access proposal: Emotion, culture, and organizational communication......Page 136 Virtual “access” versus textual harvesting......Page 137 Negotiating access for interviews......Page 138 Abandoning the ego, engaging embodiment, embracing liminality......Page 139 Navigating those first research interactions......Page 141 Relationship building with participants......Page 143 Seeking informed consent in the scene......Page 144 Briefing interviews and participant information table......Page 145 Member diaries......Page 146 Maps and narrative tours......Page 147 Key Terms......Page 149 Chapter 6 Field roles, fieldnotes, and field focus......Page 151 Field roles and standpoints......Page 152 Complete participant......Page 153 Play participant......Page 154 Focused witness......Page 155 Consider This 6.1 When playing is uncomfortable......Page 156 Complete witness......Page 157 Visual and virtual aspects of fieldwork......Page 158 Writing fieldnotes: raw records, headnotes, and formal fieldnotes......Page 159 Raw records and headnotes......Page 160 Formal fieldnotes......Page 162 Researcher’s Notepad 6.1 Fieldnote header......Page 163 Showing (and using dialogue) versus telling......Page 164 Making the familiar strange and the strange familiar......Page 165 Noticing the data as evidence......Page 166 Consider This 6.2 Noticing the data as evidence......Page 167 Fieldnote wrap-up ......Page 168 Focusing the data and using heuristic devices......Page 169 Exercise 6.2 Fieldnotes......Page 171 Following, Forgetting, and Improvising......Page 172 In summary......Page 174 Key Terms......Page 175 Chapter 7 Interview planning and design: Structuring, wording, and questioning......Page 177 Self-reflexivity in interviews ......Page 178 Level of structure in interviews......Page 179 Interview types: ethnographic, informant, respondent, narrative, discursive......Page 180 Interview stances: naïveté, collaborative, pedagogical, responsive, confrontational......Page 182 Interview guide and question wording......Page 183 Exercise 7.2 Strategizing interviews......Page 184 Researcher’s Notepad 7.1 Research questions versus interview questions......Page 185 Opening the interview......Page 186 Tips and Tools 7.2 Interview question types......Page 187 Generative questions......Page 188 Directive questions......Page 190 Closing the interview......Page 191 Visual, embodied, and experiential approaches......Page 192 Researcher’s Notepad 7.2 Mobile peripatetic interviews......Page 195 How many interviews are “enough”?......Page 196 In summary......Page 197 Exercise 7.3 Interview schedule or guide......Page 198 Key Terms......Page 199 Chapter 8 Interview practice: Embodied, mediated, and focus-group approaches ......Page 203 Interview logistics......Page 204 Why good interviewing is so much more than asking questions......Page 206 Strengths of mediated interviews......Page 208 Disadvantages of mediated interviews......Page 210 Tips and Tools 8.1 Mediated interviews: advantages and disadvantages......Page 211 The value of focus groups......Page 212 When to use focus groups......Page 213 Facilitating the focus group......Page 215 Tips and Tools 8.2 Logistics of formal focus groups......Page 216 Overcoming common focus group and interviewing challenges......Page 218 Exercise 8.2 Role-playing interview challenges in a fishbowl......Page 224 Researcher’s Notepad 8.1 Remedial–pedagogical interviews......Page 221 Transcribing......Page 223 Tips and Tools 8.3 Common transcribing symbols......Page 226 Key Terms......Page 228 Chapter 9 Data analysis basics: A phronetic iterative approach......Page 230 A phronetic iterative analysis approach......Page 231 Organizing and preparing the data......Page 234 Coding: what it is and how to start......Page 235 Consider This 9.1 Motivating questions and coding domains......Page 237 Manual approaches......Page 238 Researcher’s Notepad 9.1 Manual coding visual displays: Artistic canvas and tabletop categories......Page 239 Computer-aided approaches with everyday software ......Page 240 Primary-cycle coding, coding question start list, and first-level descriptive codes ......Page 241 Focusing the analysis and creating a codebook......Page 243 Researcher’s Notepad 9.2 Codebook excerpt......Page 244 Consider This 9.2 Focusing the data analysis......Page 246 Secondary-cycle coding: second-level analytic and axial/hierarchical codes ......Page 247 Exercise 9.1 Grouping together codes via axial and hierarchical coding......Page 249 Synthesizing activities: memos, negative cases, and analytic outlines......Page 250 Researcher’s Notepad 9.3 Analytic memos......Page 251 Researcher’s Notepad 9.4 Loose analysis outline......Page 252 Following, Forgetting, and Improvising......Page 253 In summary......Page 254 Key Terms......Page 255 Chapter 10 Advanced data analysis: The art and magic of interpretation......Page 258 Visual data displays......Page 260 Researcher’s Notepad 10.1 Matrix display......Page 261 Tips and Tools 10.1 Flowchart depicting iterative analysis process......Page 263 Computer-aided qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) ......Page 264 Exemplars and vignettes......Page 267 Developing typologies......Page 269 Dramatistic strategy and narrative analysis......Page 270 Tips and Tools 10.2 Questions to inspire narrative analysis (adapted from Harter, 2013)......Page 272 Metaphor analysis......Page 273 Explanation and causality......Page 275 Discourse tracing......Page 277 Researcher’s Notepad 10.2 Micro, meso, macro sources......Page 279 A post-qualitative analysis: deconstructionism and arts-based research ......Page 280 Following, Forgetting, and Improvising......Page 282 In summary......Page 283 Exercise 10.1 Advanced data analysis/interpretation......Page 284 Key Terms......Page 285 Chapter 11 Qualitative quality: Creating a credible, ethical, significant study......Page 287 Moving beyond objectivity, reliability, and formal generalizability......Page 288 Eight “big tent” criteria for high quality qualitative research......Page 291 Tips and Tools 11.1 Eight “big tent” criteria for excellent qualitative research......Page 292 Rich rigor......Page 293 Sincerity......Page 294 Self-reflexivity ......Page 295 Researcher’s Notepa 11.1 Sincerity word cloud......Page 296 Crystallization or triangulation (NOT both at the same time)......Page 297 Tips and Tools 11.2 Intercoder reliability......Page 299 Member reflections (NOT member “checks”)......Page 300 Transferability and naturalistic generalization......Page 301 Aesthetic merit......Page 302 Significant contribution......Page 303 Procedural ethics......Page 305 Situational ethics......Page 306 Consider This 11.1 Situational and relational ethics......Page 307 Meaningful coherence......Page 308 Following, Forgetting, and Improvising......Page 309 In summary......Page 310 Key Terms......Page 311 Chapter 12 Theorizing and writing: Explaining, synthesizing, and crafting a tale......Page 314 Theorizing, brainstorming, explaining......Page 315 Exercise 12.1 Words push back on us: a creative analytic exercise......Page 316 Exercise 12.2 Theorizing via bracketing, abduction, metaphor, and explaining......Page 317 Types of tales: realist, impressionistic/poetic, confessional/autoethnographic......Page 318 Creative, impressionist, and literary tales......Page 319 The confessional tale......Page 321 Researcher’s Notepad 12.1 Poetic inquiry......Page 322 Archaeology of a “traditional” qualitative essay......Page 323 Researcher’s Notepad 12.2 Dialogue as a powerful literary tactic......Page 324 Exercise 12.3 Accidental rewrites......Page 325 Writing the framing material: title, abstract, key words......Page 326 Writing the research methodology and method(s)......Page 327 Findings and analysis: choosing an organizational approach......Page 328 Researcher’s Notepad 12.3 Methods data display......Page 329 Themes/topics......Page 330 Convergence/braided narrative......Page 331 Separated text......Page 332 Layered/messy texts......Page 333 Conclusions, implications, limitations, and future research......Page 334 Following, Forgetting, and Improvising......Page 337 In summary......Page 339 Key Terms......Page 340 Chapter 13 Drafting, polishing, and publishing......Page 342 Writing as a method of inquiry......Page 344 Choosing the research materials......Page 345 Rich, luminous, and thick representations......Page 346 Structuring the data in sections, paragraphs, and sentences......Page 347 Exercise 13.1 Writing from different perspectives and verb tenses......Page 348 Formatting qualitative work......Page 349 Visual representations and art......Page 351 Setting yourself up for success by considering the audience first......Page 352 Exercise 13.2 Article format model......Page 354 Submitting, revising, and resubmitting for journal publication......Page 355 Tips and Tools 13.1 National or international journals that have published qualitative communication research (an incomplete list):......Page 356 Rise and grind: overcoming common writing and submission challenges......Page 358 How to write a lot......Page 359 Addressing common challenges in qualitative writing......Page 360 In summary......Page 364 Key Terms......Page 365 Chapter 14 Qualitative methodology matters: Exiting and communicating impact......Page 366 Navigating exit and research disengagement......Page 367 Don’t spoil the scene......Page 368 Give back......Page 369 Ethically delivering the findings......Page 370 Public scholarship: crafting representations that move beyond the scholarly essay......Page 371 Following, Forgetting, and Improvising......Page 372 Staged performances......Page 373 Researcher’s Notepad 14.2 Staged performance with impact......Page 374 Films......Page 375 White papers and translated essays......Page 376 Tips and Tools 14.1 White papers......Page 377 Grant applications and reports......Page 378 Consulting and private sector ethnography......Page 379 Media relations......Page 380 Web presence......Page 381 Warning: doing research that matters can be terrifying......Page 383 Overcoming lingering obstacles to public scholarship......Page 384 Following, Forgetting, and Improvising......Page 386 Key Terms......Page 388 Researcher’s Notepad Fieldnote......Page 389 Researcher’s Notepad Focus group guide......Page 391 Researcher’s Notepad Interview/focus group excerpts with different levels of transcription detail......Page 395 References......Page 399 Index......Page 422 EULA......Page 435 "Qualitative Research Methods is a comprehensive, all-inclusive resource for theoretical underpinnings and practical conduct of qualitative methodology. Along with providing clear and concise guidance on how to design and theoretically grounded research studies, write proposals, and navigate ethical challenges, qualitative methodology expert Sarah J. Tracy also offers invaluable tips for recruiting participants, practicing fieldwork, and conducting interviews and focus groups. Easy-to-follow steps are provided for iterative data analysis, describing in detail how to move between theory and data in primary, secondary, and advanced coding cycles, ad in doing so, make meaning and build theory. Finally, the book provides insight on multiple ways to write and represent qualitative research for the greatest scholarly, professional, and social impact. Featuring an engaging writing style, in-depth examples from the author's own practice and a variety of topic areas, and a wealth of classroom activities, Qualitative Research Methods is an essential resource for novice and experienced researches alike"-- Provided by publisher