Knossos and the Near East : A Contextual Approach to Imports and Imitations in Early Iron Age Tombs

In this book, Dr Vyron Antoniadis presents a contextual study of the Near Eastern imports which reached Crete during the Early Iron Age and were deposited in the Knossian tombs. Cyprus, Phoenicia, North Syria and Egypt are the places of origin of these imports. Knossian workshops produced close or freer imitations of these objects. The present study reveals the ways in which imported commodities were used to create or enhance social identity in the Knossian context. The author explores the reasons that made Knossians deposit imported objects in their graves as well as investigates whether specific groups could control not only the access to these objects but also the production of their imitations. Dr Antoniadis argues that the extensive use of locally produced imitations alongside authentic imports in burial rituals and contexts indicates that Knossians treated both imports and imitations as items of the same symbolic and economic value. Table of Contents Preface and Acknowledgements Abbreviations Introduction Chapter 1: Death and her Objects: Theoretical Approaches Chapter 2: Would you like your tomb with or without dromos? Tombs and Society in EIA Knossos Chapter 3: The Near Eastern Connection: The Finds and their Contexts Chapter 4: Who gets the Imports and who the Imitations? Conclusion: An Overview of the Knossian Early Iron Age Society Appendix I: The Tombs and the Burials Appendix II: Imports and Imitations Bibliography In this book, Dr Vyron Antoniadis presents a contextual study of the Near Eastern imports which reached Crete during the Early Iron Age and were deposited in the Knossian tombs. Cyprus, Phoenicia, North Syria and Egypt are the places of origin of these imports. Knossian workshops produced close or freer imitations of these objects. The present study reveals the ways in which imported commodities were used to create or enhance social identity in the Knossian context. The author explores the reasons that made Knossians deposit imported objects in their graves as well as investigates whether specific groups could control not only the access to these objects but also the production of their imitations. Dr Antoniadis argues that the extensive use of locally produced imitations alongside authentic imports in burial rituals and contexts indicates that Knossians treated both imports and imitations as items of the same symbolic and economic value. Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright Information 4 Contents 7 List of Figures 9 List of Tables 10 Preface and Acknowledgements 11 Abbreviations 13 Introduction 15 i. Contextual Analyses vs. Empirical Accounts 15 ii. Aim and Method 17 iii. General Remarks on Knossos 19 Figure 1: Map 1: Knossos and the Eastern Mediterranean. 20 Figure 2: Map 2: The area of Knossos, the BA Palace and Modern Heraklion. 22 Chapter 1: Death and Her Objects: Theoretical Approaches 23 i. Interpreting the Mortuary Evidence 23 ii. Funeral Rites: Cremation or Inhumation? 28 iii. Imports, Imitations and Numbers 30 iv. The problem of names: Implications on chronology and terminology 35 Table 1: A basic chronological sequence of Knossos based on Coldstream (1996; 2001) and on different views of historical dating. 39 Chapter 2: Would you like your tomb with or without dromos? Tombs and Society in EIA Knossos 41 i. Tomb Typology 41 ii. History of Discoveries and Spatial Distribution of Tombs and Cemeteries 43 iii. Funerary Rites and Rituals in Knossian Context 55 iv. Who used the cemeteries? 58 v. EIA cemeteries and BA Tradition 67 vi. Additional Archaeological Evidence 72 a. From the BA Palace to the EIA Settlement 72 b. Cult activity 78 vi. Conclusion 81 Figure 3: Terminology of the chamber tomb (Tomb 45, Med. Faculty, Coldstream and Catling 1996, figure 24). 41 Figure 4: A shaft grave and a pit-cave grave, (Tombs 153 and 186 KMF respectively, after Coldstream and Catling 1996, figure 43). 42 Figure 5: Map 3: The location of EIA tombs (redrawn digitally after Coldstream and Catling 1996, 713). 44 Figure 6: Map 4: The burial sites within KNC. 47 Figure 7 Map 5: Fortetsa SE Tombs. 50 Table 2: Graph 1: Numbers of tombs per type. 55 Figure 8: Heraklion Hospital at Knossos, below the fence is Kouskouras the soft yellow limestone, which was ideal for the construction of the chamber-tomb (Photograph by the author). 65 Table 3: Graph 2: Maximum and minimum of cremation urns (Cavanagh 1996, 661). Reproduced with permission of the British School at Athens. 66 Table 4: Graph 3: Cremations per year (Cavanagh 1996, 662). Reproduced with permission of the British School at Athens. 66 Table 5: Graph 4: Construction of new Tombs per period. 66 Table 6: Graph 5: Construction of new Tombs during the Proto-G period. 67 Table 7: Graph 6: Construction of new Tombs during the G period. 67 Figure 9: Map 6: The settlement of Knossos. 77 Chapter 3: The Near Eastern Connection: The Finds and their Contexts 83 i. Revisiting Evidence: 83 ii. The Catalogue 85 Chapter 4: Who gets the Imports and who the Imitations? 105 i. First-level Analysis: The Finds 105 a. Provenance of the objects catalogued as imports 105 b. Provenance of the objects catalogued as imports or local imitations 113 c. The significance of the imitations in relation to their prototypes: The Pottery Factor 117 ii. Second-level analysis: Imports, Imitations and Society 129 iii. Cluster analysis 145 IV. Conclusion 148 Table 8: Graph 7: Provenance of imports. 106 Table 9: Graph 8: Pottery style in relation to the quantities found at the Knossian Cemeteries. 109 Table 10: Graph 9: Near Eastern objects and pots per period. 110 Table 11: Graph 10: Material of imports. 111 Figure 10: Scarab from Tomb II, Khaniale Teke (Hutchinson 1954, figure 3 and plate 29). Reproduced with permission of the British School at Athens. 112 Figure 11: Scarab from Al-Bass, Tyre (Gamer-Wallert 2004, 407-408). Reproduced with permission of Professor Aubet. 112 Table 12: Graph 11: Numbers of imports or local imitations. 114 Table 13: Chart 1: imported and locally made pottery. 118 Table 14: Chart 2: Evolution of local shapes deriving from Near Eastern pots. Brock 1957, plates: 34, 59, 97, 71, 68, 49, 76; Coldstream and Catling 1996, plates: 115, 116, 119, 146, 148, 188, 194, 201, 206, 208, 223, 227, 239). Images reproduced with pe 122 Table 14: Chart 2: Evolution of local shapes deriving from Near Eastern pots. Brock 1957, plates: 34, 59, 97, 71, 68, 49, 76; Coldstream and Catling 1996, plates: 115, 116, 119, 146, 148, 188, 194, 201, 206, 208, 223, 227, 239). Images reproduced with pe 123 Table 14: Chart 2: Evolution of local shapes deriving from Near Eastern pots. Brock 1957, plates: 34, 59, 97, 71, 68, 49, 76; Coldstream and Catling 1996, plates: 115, 116, 119, 146, 148, 188, 194, 201, 206, 208, 223, 227, 239). Images reproduced with pe 124 Table 15: Graph 12: Shapes and quantities of Near Eastern Pottery found at Knossos Cemeteries. 125 Table 16: Graph 13: Shapes of Local Imitations of Near Eastern Pottery and quantities Found at Knossos Cemeteries. 125 Table 17: Graph 14: Chronological sequence and quantity of imported pots and of their imitations. 126 Table 18: classification of tombs according to imports. 131 Table 19: Graph 15: The ten richest tombs across all cemeteries. 133 Figure 13: Distribution of Imports at KMF (after Coldstream and Catlin 1996, figure 1). Reproduced with permission of the British School at Athens. 136 Figure 14: Distribution of Imports at Teke (after Coldstream and Catling 1996, figure 2). Reproduced with permission of the British School at Athens. 139 Figure 15: Distribution of imports at Fortetsa NE (after Coldstream and Catling 1996, figures 1-6; Hood and Boardman 1961, 68). The present author made the synthesis of maps different excavations. Reproduced with permission of the British School at Athens 139 Figure 16: Distribution of imports at Khaniale Teke (after Hutchinson and Boardman 1954, 215). Reproduced with permission of the British School at Athens. 140 Figure 17 Distribution of imports at Fortetsa NE (after Brock 1957, figure 2). Reproduced with permission of the British School at Athens. 142 Figure 18: Distribution of imports at Ayios Ioannis (after Boardman 1960, 128). Reproduced with permission of the British School at Athens. 143 Table 20: Graph 16: Dendrogram of tomb clusters. 147 Conclusion: An Overview of the Knossian Early Iron Age Society 150 Appendix I: The Tombs and the Burials 155 Appendix II: Imports and Imitations 162 Bibliography 168 Knossos,Near East,Cemetery,Tombs,Excavation,Imports,Iron Age In This Book, Dr Vyron Antoniadis Presents A Contextual Study Of The Near Eastern Imports Which Reached Crete During The Early Iron Age And Were Deposited In The Knossian Tombs. Cyprus, Phoenicia, North Syria And Egypt Are The Places Of Origin Of These Imports. Knossian Workshops Produced Close Or Freer Imitations Of These Objects. The Present Study Reveals The Ways In Which Imported Commodities Were Used To Create Or Enhance Social Identity In The Knossian Context. The Author Explores The Reasons That Made Knossians Deposit Imported Objects In Their Graves As Well As Investigates Whether Specific Groups Could Control Not Only The Access To These Objects But Also The Production Of Their Imitations. Dr Antoniadis Argues That The Extensive Use Of Locally Produced Imitations Alongside Authentic Imports In Burial Rituals And Contexts Indicates That Knossians Treated Both Imports And Imitations As Items Of The Same Symbolic And Economic Value. Machine Generated Contents Note: I. Contextual Analyses Vs. Empirical Accounts -- Ii. Aim And Method -- Iii. General Remarks On Knossos -- Ch. 1 Death And Her Objects: Theoretical Approaches -- I. Interpreting The Mortuary Evidence -- Ii. Funeral Rites: Cremation Or Inhumation? -- Iii. Imports, Imitations And Numbers -- Iv. The Problem Of Names: Implications On Chronology And Terminology -- Ch. 2 Would You Like Your Tomb With Or Without Dromos? Tombs And Society In Eia Knossos -- I. Tomb Typology -- Ii. History Of Discoveries And Spatial Distribution Of Tombs And Cemeteries -- Iii. Funerary Rites And Rituals In Knossian Context -- Iv. Who Used The Cemeteries? -- V. Eia Cemeteries And Ba Tradition -- Vi. Additional Archaeological Evidence -- A. From The Ba Palace To The Eia Settlement -- B. Cult Activity -- Vii. Conclusion -- Ch. 3 The Near Eastern Connection: The Finds And Their Contexts -- I. Revisiting The Evidence -- Ii. The Catalogue -- Ch. 4 Who Gets The Imports And Who The Imitations? -- I. First-level Analysis: The Finds -- A. Provenance Of The Objects Catalogued As Imports -- B. Provenance Of The Objects Catalogued As Imports Or Local Imitations -- C. The Significance Of The Imitations In Relation To Their Prototypes: The Pottery Factor -- Ii. Second-level Analysis: Imports, Imitations And Society -- Iii. Cluster Analysis -- Iv. Conclusion. Vyron Antoniadis. Includes Bibliographical References (pages 154-168) And Index.