تحقیقات در صنعت رنگرزی در پمپئی: تکنیک‌های باستان‌شناسی تجربی و شبیه‌سازی کامپیوتری

The scale of processing associated with the dyeing industry in Pompeii is a controversial subject. To determine the scale of manufacturing would allow an understanding of the operation of Pompeii's economy and its part in the Roman World. Previous studies have taken a theoretical approach, and no conclusive answer has been reached. Conversely, Investigations into the Dyeing Industry in Pompeii uses a new multi-disciplinary triangulated approach. A replica was constructed to gauge the operating parameters of a dyeing apparatus within the framework of the principles of experimental archaeology. The remains were re-examined in situ with the new operational and ergonomics understanding. The replica was amended to allow exploration of design features and ventilation. The throughput of the apparatus was placed within the context of the industry with modern manufacturing systems theory. Computer simulation was used to explore the long-term mechanical effects of the dyeing process on the materials used in the construction of the original apparatus and to determine if 'ratcheting' failure was due to creep. These combined methods have given an understanding of the significance of the industry that is grounded in engineering and archaeological principles but within the context of Pompeii. The scale of processing associated with the dyeing industry in Pompeii is a controversial subject. To determine the scale of manufacturing would allow an understanding of the operation of Pompeii’s economy and its part in the Roman World. Previous studies have taken a theoretical approach, and no conclusive answer has been reached. Conversely, Investigations into the Dyeing Industry in Pompeii uses a new multi-disciplinary triangulated approach. A replica was constructed to gauge the operating parameters of a dyeing apparatus within the framework of the principles of experimental archaeology. The remains were re-examined in situ with the new operational and ergonomics understanding. The replica was amended to allow exploration of design features and ventilation. The throughput of the apparatus was placed within the context of the industry with modern manufacturing systems theory. Computer simulation was used to explore the long-term mechanical effects of the dyeing process on the materials used in the construction of the original apparatus and to determine if ‘ratcheting’ failure was due to creep. These combined methods have given an understanding of the significance of the industry that is grounded in engineering and archaeological principles but within the context of Pompeii. About the Author Heather Hopkins Pepper graduated with BSc Archaeology and PhD in Roman Engineering from the University of Bradford. She was made AIfA in 2009. She continues to research, present and publish widely, diversifying through collaboration with different disciplines, including recent experiments through the European Textile Forum to explore the choice of materials used in dyeing apparatus. She edited and co-edited the first and second proceedings of the European Textile Forum in 2013 and 2018. Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright page 4 Contents Page 7 _GoBack 13 Preface 13 Chapter Zero 15 Preface to the published thesis 15 Introduction 15 How and why the approach of this study differed 15 How location and time affected this study 16 Location 16 Study in the context of time and technological developments 17 Development of experimental archaeology 17 Overview of the study 18 Background to this study 18 New approaches within this study 19 Surveying the original apparatus in 2002 19 The survey in 2002: water supply 19 The survey in 2002: finding a ‘Real Roman’ 20 The survey in 2002: defining ‘Recording’, ‘Conservation’, ‘Reconstruction’ 21 Redefining ‘experiment’ 22 Finite Element Analysis 22 ‘Roman’ vs ‘Modern’ manufacturing 22 Intangible questions 23 Expansion since the doctorate was awarded 24 Presentations and publications since this thesis was submitted 25 Publications 25 In Press 26 Conferences presentations 26 Seminars given 27 Acknowledgements to the published thesis 30 Timeline of previous work relevant to this study 31 Chapter One 33 Introduction to the dyeing industry of Pompeii 33 1.1 The significance of the scale of manufacture of textiles in Pompeii 33 1.1.1. Aims and Objectives 34 1.1.2. Nature of this investigation 35 1.2 Literature Review 35 1.2.1 Research background 35 1.2.2 Roman Dye vat design 36 1.2.3 The debate so far 36 I viii 19 36 Previous work: A Strengths and Weakness Analysis 37 Moeller 37 Jongman 38 Mann 38 Laurence 38 Summary 38 1.2.4 Quantifying archaeological writing 39 Related work 39 Watling, 2004 39 1.3 The significance of this study 40 1.3.1 To conclude 40 1.4 Thesis Outline: 41 Chapter Two 42 Literature Review 42 2.1 Introduction 42 2.2 Textile processing 42 2.3 Dye types 42 2.4 When to dye: Stage at which dyeing takes place 43 2.5 Roman textiles 43 2.6 Requirements for dyeing 44 2.7 Consumables used in manufacture 44 2.7.1 Fleece 44 2.7.2 Mordants 45 2.7.3 Roman dyes 46 2.7.4 To summarise 47 2.8 Undyed textile 47 2.9 Process consumables 47 2.9.1. Water supply 47 2.9.2 Water content 47 2.9.3 Water quality 48 2.9.4 Reliability of ancient and modern sources on water 49 2.9.5 Fuel 49 2.10 Recipe directions 50 2.10.1The Recipe used in this study 50 Recipe for mordanting 50 Recipe for mordanting: 50 Recipe for dyeing with madder: 51 Times for recipe 51 2.11 Removing the water 51 2.12 Quantity of textile 51 2.12.1 Roman garments 52 2.12.2 Pictorial representation of Roman dress 52 2.12.3 Problems with depiction 53 2.13 Population 53 2.14 Intangible evidence 53 2.15 Summary 54 Chapter Three 55 Experimental Replica 55 3.1 Introduction 55 3.2 A differing approach 55 3.3 Experimental archaeology 55 3.4 Constructing the apparatus 57 3.5 Experiment One: Preliminary experimentation 58 3.6 Experiment Two 59 3.6.1 Hypothesis 59 3.6.2 Apparatus 60 3.6.3 Diagram 60 3.6.4 Method 61 3.6.5 Results 62 3.6.6 Discussion 62 3.6.7 Conclusions from practical experiment 62 3.6.8 Summary 63 3.7 Discussion 64 3.7.1 Reconstruction 64 3.7.2 The use of wood or charcoal 64 3.7.3 Relative energy of wood and charcoal 64 3.8 Further work 66 Chapter Four 67 Review of Remains in situ 67 4.1 Fieldwork in Pompeii 67 4.2 Gazetteer of the dye vats discovered in Pompeii to date 67 4.2.1 Defining the dye vats 68 Attributes of a dye vat following the operation of a replica: 68 4.2.2 Extent of excavation in Pompeii. 69 4.3 The Survey and Gazetteer 69 4.3.1 Summary of dye vats 69 Property I viii 19 69 Properties V I 4 and V I 5 69 Property VII xiv 17 69 Property VII ii 11 69 Property IX iii 2 70 4.3.2 The discounted ‘dye vat’ 70 4.3.3 Flued vats 71 4.3.4 Vats and steps 71 4.4 Water supply to dye works 71 4.5 Discrepancy between the digital map and the aerial photograph of Pompeii 73 4.6 Bowing 76 4.7 Recent excavation 77 4.8 Further work 77 Full Gazetteer of Dyeing Apparatus in Pompeii 79 Chapter Five 112 Application of Ergonomics to Apparatus and Skeletal data 112 5.1 Ergonomics of a dyeing apparatus 112 5.2 The height of the average Roman 112 5.3 Ergonomics 113 5.4 Skeletal evidence from Herculaneum 113 5.5 Build 115 5.6 Criticism of data 115 5.7 Difference of approach 115 5.8 Studying Pompeii and Herculaneum 116 5.9 Understanding modern ergonomics 116 5.10 Lifting 117 5.11 Working day 118 5.12 Nutrition 118 5.13 Necessary steps 120 Property I viii 19 121 Property Vi4 121 Property Vi5 122 Property VII ii 11 122 Property VII xiv 17 123 Property IX iii 2 123 5.14 Summary 124 5.15 Further work 124 Chapter Six 125 Flued Experimental replica 125 6.1 Introduction 125 6.2 Flued vats 125 6.3 Vat size discrepancies in the replicas 125 6.4 Experiment Three 126 6.4.1 Hypothesis 126 6.4.2 Diagram 126 6.4.3 Apparatus 127 6.4.4 Method 127 6.4.5 Results 127 6.4.6 Discussion 128 6.4.7 Conclusion to Experiment Three 128 6.5 Stress on the vats 128 6.6 Summary 130 Chapter Seven 131 The Finite Element model 131 7.1 Introduction 131 7.2 Replicating the material behaviour of the apparatus 131 7.3 Creep 131 7.4 Changes over time 132 7.5 A virtual replica 133 7.5.1 Modelling the dye vat 134 7.5.2 Finite element analysis 135 7.5.3 Modelling creep 136 7.6 Requirements for the model 138 7.6.1 Experiment Four 138 7.6.1.1 Hypothesis 138 7.6.1.2 Apparatus 138 7.6.1.3 Diagram 138 7.6.1.4 Method 138 7.6.1.5 Results 139 7.6.1.6 Discussion of Experiment Four 143 7.6.1.7 Conclusion to Experiment Four 143 7.6.2 Average temperature profile 143 7.7 Constructing the finite element model 144 7.7.1 Modelling the apparatus in the computer 144 7.7.2 Geometric model 146 7.7.3 Material properties 147 7.7.4 Loading 147 7.7.4.1 Self-weight 147 7.7.4.2 Hydrostatic loading 148 7.7.4.3 Static load 148 7.7.5 Introduction of temperature 149 7.8 Results 149 7.9 The constructed dyeing apparatus 154 7.10 Summary 156 Chapter Eight 157 Discussion 157 8.1 Introduction 157 8.2 This work in context 157 8.2.1. Experimental archaeology 157 8.2.2 Definition of experiment 158 8.3 Review of standing remains 159 8.4 Ergonomics 159 8.5 Summary of each section of work 159 8.5.1 Original work, the foundation of study 160 8.5.2 Preliminary work 160 8.6 Assumptions applied to the industry 161 8.7 The new findings from this study 161 8.7.1 Significance of lead 161 8.7.2 Comparison of modern manufacturing systems to Roman dyeing 163 8.7.2.1 Inputs and outputs 168 8.7.2.2 Buffers 168 8.7.2.3 Storage 169 8.7.2.4 Information Process Cycle 169 8.8 Conclusions 170 8.9 Further work 171 Glossary 173 References 176 Appendices 181 Appendix One 182 Coding Pompeii: The layout of the city and address description 182 Location of dye works in Pompeii 182 Location of properties 182 Property I viii 19 182 Properties Vi4 and Vi5 182 Property VII ii 11 183 Property IX iii 2 183 Property VII xiv 17 183 Appendix Two 184 Understanding the economic influence of the dyeing industry in Pompeii through the application of experimental archaeology and thermodynamics 184 Abstract 184 Introduction 184 Dye vat design 185 Methodology 186 Implementation of Engineering Theory 186 Results 189 Conclusion 190 Bibliography 192 Appendix Three 194 Appendix Four: Assembling lead data for model 198 Appendix Five: Abaqus input decks 204 Input deck for the lead column at 20oC, used to gain the data for the input deck for lead kettle. 204 Input deck for the lead column at 40oC, used to gain the data for the input deck for lead kettle. 206 Input deck for the lead kettle 209 Online Content 214