Inventing Temperature: Measurement and Scientific Progress (Oxford Studies in Philosophy of Science)

What is temperature, and how can we measure it correctly? These may seem like simple questions, but the most renowned scientists struggled with them throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. In Inventing Temperature, Chang examines how scientists first created thermometers; how they measured temperature beyond the reach of standard thermometers; and how they managed to assess the reliability and accuracy of these instruments without a circular reliance on the instruments themselves. In a discussion that brings together the history of science with the philosophy of science, Chang presents the simple eet challenging epistemic and technical questions about these instruments, and the complex web of abstract philosophical issues surrounding them. Chang's book shows that many items of knowledge that we take for granted now are in fact spectacular achievements, obtained only after a great deal of innovative thinking, painstaking experiments, bold conjectures, and controversy. Lurking behind these achievements are some very important philosophical questions about how and when people accept the authority of science. Contents......Page 12 Note on Translation......Page 16 Chronology......Page 18 Introduction......Page 22 Blood, Butter, and Deep Cellars: The Necessity and Scarcity of Fixed Points......Page 27 The Vexatious Variations of the Boiling Point......Page 30 Superheating and the Mirage of True Ebullition......Page 36 Escape from Superheating......Page 42 The Understanding of Boiling......Page 47 A Dusty Epilogue......Page 54 Analysis: The Meaning and Achievement of Fixity......Page 58 The Validation of Standards: Justificatory Descent......Page 59 The Iterative Improvement of Standards: Constructive Ascent......Page 63 The Defense of Fixity: Plausible Denial and Serendipitous Robustness......Page 67 The Case of the Freezing Point......Page 72 The Problem of Nomic Measurement......Page 76 De Luc and the Method of Mixtures......Page 79 Caloric Theories against the Method of Mixtures......Page 83 The Calorist Mirage of Gaseous Linearity......Page 88 Regnault: Austerity and Comparability......Page 93 The Verdict: Air over Mercury......Page 98 The Achievement of Observability, by Stages......Page 103 Comparability and the Ontological Principle of Single Value......Page 108 Minimalism against Duhemian Holism......Page 111 Regnault and Post-Laplacian Empiricism......Page 115 Narrative: Measuring Temperature When Thermometers Melt and Freeze......Page 122 Can Mercury Be Frozen?......Page 123 Can Mercury Tell Us Its Own Freezing Point?......Page 126 Consolidating the Freezing Point of Mercury......Page 132 Adventures of a Scientific Potter......Page 137 It Is Temperature, but Not As We Know It?......Page 142 Ganging Up on Wedgwood......Page 147 Analysis: The Extension of Concepts beyond Their Birth Domains......Page 160 Travel Advisory from Percy Bridgman......Page 161 Beyond Bridgman: Meaning, Definition, and Validity......Page 167 Strategies for Metrological Extension......Page 171 Mutual Grounding as a Growth Strategy......Page 174 Narrative: The Quest for the Theoretical Meaning of Temperature......Page 178 Temperature, Heat, and Cold......Page 179 Theoretical Temperature before Thermodynamics......Page 187 William Thomson’s Move to the Abstract......Page 192 Thomson’s Second Absolute Temperature......Page 201 Semi-Concrete Models of the Carnot Cycle......Page 205 Using Gas Thermometers to Approximate Absolute Temperature......Page 211 The Hidden Difficulties of Reduction......Page 216 Dealing with Abstractions......Page 221 Operationalization and Its Validity......Page 224 Accuracy through Iteration......Page 231 Theoretical Temperature without Thermodynamics?......Page 236 5. Measurement, Justification, and Scientific Progress......Page 239 Measurement, Circularity, and Coherentism......Page 240 Making Coherentism Progressive: Epistemic Iteration......Page 243 Fruits of Iteration: Enrichment and Self-Correction......Page 247 Tradition, Progress, and Pluralism......Page 250 The Abstract and the Concrete......Page 252 6. Complementary Science—History and Philosophy of Science as a Continuation of Science by Other Means......Page 254 The Complementary Function of History and Philosophy of Science......Page 255 Philosophy, History, and Their Interaction in Complementary Science......Page 257 The Character of Knowledge Generated by Complementary Science......Page 259 Relations to Other Modes of Historical and Philosophical Study of Science......Page 266 A Continuation of Science by Other Means......Page 268 A......Page 270 C......Page 271 F......Page 272 I......Page 273 M......Page 274 P......Page 275 S......Page 276 W......Page 277 Bibliography......Page 278 A......Page 294 C......Page 295 E......Page 297 H......Page 298 J......Page 299 M......Page 300 O......Page 301 R......Page 302 S......Page 303 T......Page 304 Z......Page 305 Contents 12 Note on Translation 16 Chronology 18 Introduction 22 1. Keeping the Fixed Points Fixed 27 Narrative: What to Do When Water Refuses to Boil at the Boiling Point 27 Blood, Butter, and Deep Cellars: The Necessity and Scarcity of Fixed Points 27 The Vexatious Variations of the Boiling Point 30 Superheating and the Mirage of True Ebullition 36 Escape from Superheating 42 The Understanding of Boiling 47 A Dusty Epilogue 54 Analysis: The Meaning and Achievement of Fixity 58 The Validation of Standards: Justificatory Descent 59 The Iterative Improvement of Standards: Constructive Ascent 63 The Defense of Fixity: Plausible Denial and Serendipitous Robustness 67 The Case of the Freezing Point 72 2. Spirit, Air, and Quicksilver 76 Narrative: The Search for the ‘‘Real’’ Scale of Temperature 76 The Problem of Nomic Measurement 76 De Luc and the Method of Mixtures 79 Caloric Theories against the Method of Mixtures 83 The Calorist Mirage of Gaseous Linearity 88 Regnault: Austerity and Comparability 93 The Verdict: Air over Mercury 98 Analysis: Measurement and Theory in the Context of Empiricism 103 The Achievement of Observability, by Stages 103 Comparability and the Ontological Principle of Single Value 108 Minimalism against Duhemian Holism 111 Regnault and Post-Laplacian Empiricism 115 3. To Go Beyond 122 Narrative: Measuring Temperature When Thermometers Melt and Freeze 122 Can Mercury Be Frozen? 123 Can Mercury Tell Us Its Own Freezing Point? 126 Consolidating the Freezing Point of Mercury 132 Adventures of a Scientific Potter 137 It Is Temperature, but Not As We Know It? 142 Ganging Up on Wedgwood 147 Analysis: The Extension of Concepts beyond Their Birth Domains 160 Travel Advisory from Percy Bridgman 161 Beyond Bridgman: Meaning, Definition, and Validity 167 Strategies for Metrological Extension 171 Mutual Grounding as a Growth Strategy 174 4. Theory, Measurement, and Absolute Temperature 178 Narrative: The Quest for the Theoretical Meaning of Temperature 178 Temperature, Heat, and Cold 179 Theoretical Temperature before Thermodynamics 187 William Thomson’s Move to the Abstract 192 Thomson’s Second Absolute Temperature 201 Semi-Concrete Models of the Carnot Cycle 205 Using Gas Thermometers to Approximate Absolute Temperature 211 Analysis: Operationalization—Making Contact between Thinking and Doing 216 The Hidden Difficulties of Reduction 216 Dealing with Abstractions 221 Operationalization and Its Validity 224 Accuracy through Iteration 231 Theoretical Temperature without Thermodynamics? 236 5. Measurement, Justification, and Scientific Progress 239 Measurement, Circularity, and Coherentism 240 Making Coherentism Progressive: Epistemic Iteration 243 Fruits of Iteration: Enrichment and Self-Correction 247 Tradition, Progress, and Pluralism 250 The Abstract and the Concrete 252 6. Complementary Science—History and Philosophy of Science as a Continuation of Science by Other Means 254 The Complementary Function of History and Philosophy of Science 255 Philosophy, History, and Their Interaction in Complementary Science 257 The Character of Knowledge Generated by Complementary Science 259 Relations to Other Modes of Historical and Philosophical Study of Science 266 A Continuation of Science by Other Means 268 Glossary of Scientific, Historical, and Philosophical Terms 270 A 270 B 271 C 271 D 272 E 272 F 272 H 273 I 273 J 274 K 274 L 274 M 274 N 275 O 275 P 275 Q 276 R 276 S 276 T 277 U 277 V 277 W 277 Bibliography 278 Index 294 A 294 B 295 C 295 D 297 E 297 F 298 G 298 H 298 I 299 J 299 K 300 L 300 M 300 N 301 O 301 P 302 Q 302 R 302 S 303 T 304 U 305 V 305 W 305 Y 305 Z 305 "What is temperature, and how can we measure it correctly? These may seem like simple questions, but the most renowned scientists struggled with them throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In Inventing Temperature, Chang examines how scientists first created thermometers; how they measured temperature beyond the reach of standard thermometers; and how they managed to assess the reliability and accuracy of these instruments without a circular reliance on the instruments themselves." "In a discussion that brings together the history of science with the philosophy of science, Chang presents the simple yet challenging epistemic and technical questions about these instruments, and the complex web of abstract philosophical issues surrounding them. Chang's book shows that many items of knowledge that we take for granted now are in fact spectacular achievements, obtained only after a great deal of innovative thinking, painstaking experiments, bold conjectures, and controversy. Lurking behind these achievements are some very important philosophical questions about how and when people accept the authority of science."--Jacket.

What is temperature, and how can we measure it correctly? These may seem like simple questions, but the most renowned scientists struggled with them throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. In Inventing Temperature, Chang examines how scientists first created thermometers; how they measured temperature beyond the reach of standard thermometers; and how they managed to assess the reliability and accuracy of these instruments without a circular reliance on the instruments themselves.

In a discussion that brings together the history of science with the philosophy of science, Chang presents the simple eet challenging epistemic and technical questions about these instruments, and the complex web of abstract philosophical issues surrounding them. Chang's book shows that many items of knowledge that we take for granted now are in fact spectacular achievements, obtained only after a great deal of innovative thinking, painstaking experiments, bold conjectures, and controversy. Lurking behind these achievements are some very important philosophical questions about how and when people accept the authority of science.

## Abstract This book presents the concept of “complementary science” which contributes to scientific knowledge through historical and philosophical investigations. It emphasizes the fact that many simple items of knowledge that we take for granted were actually spectacular achievements obtained only after a great deal of innovative thinking, painstaking experiments, bold conjectures, and serious controversies. Each chapter in the book consists of two parts: a narrative part that states the philosophical puzzle and gives a problem-centred narrative on the historical attempts to solve the puzzle; and the analysis part which provides in-depth analyses of certain scientific, historical, and philosophical aspects of the story. The author presents simple yet challenging epistemic and technical questions about temperature-measuring instruments, and the complex web of abstract philosophical issues surrounding them. He also shows that many items of knowledge we take for granted are in fact spectacular achievements obtained after a great deal of innovative thinking The scientific study of heat started with the invention of the thermometer That is a well-worn cliche, but it contains enough truth to serve as the starting point of our inquiry.