Interpreting Judean Pillar Figurines: Gender and Empire in Judean Apotropaic Ritual (Forschungen Zum Alten Testament 2.Reihe)

Judean pillar figurines are one of the most common ritual objects from Iron II Israel. These small terracotta females have received a great deal of scholarly attention, appearing in discussions about Israelite religion, monotheism, and women's practice. Yet the figurines are still poorly understood. Modern interpreters connect the figurines with goddesses, popular religion, and females but often base their arguments on the presumed significance of the figurines' breasts and the Hebrew Bible. In contrast, archaeological context is frequently overshadowed or oversimplified. In an attempt to address these problems and to understand figurine rituals in Jerusalem, Erin Darby evaluates relevant Near Eastern texts, archaeological context, biblical texts, and Near Eastern iconography. She also explores changes in figurine iconography, the function of the figurines in rituals of healing and protection and the gender of figurine users. Interpreting Judean Pillar Figurines. Gender and Empire in Judean Apotropaic Ritual Preface Acknowledgements Contents List of Tables List of Figures 1 Introduction and Methodology 1. Brief Description of Judean Pillar Figurines 2. Apotropaic Ritual a. The History of a Category b. Pros and Cons 3. Analyzing Ritual 4. Archaeology and Figurines a. Disposal Contexts b. Typical and Prototypical Contexts c. Ethnoarchaeology and Figurines 5. Archaeological Method a. Regional Study of Jerusalem b. Interpreting Disposal Patterns c. Fragments and Figurines d. Text and Archaeology 6. Project Summary 2 Interpretive Trends 1. JPFs as Goddesses a. Astarte b. Asherah c. Goddesses versus Magic d. Humans versus Goddesses 2. JPFs as Popular Religion a. Definitions of Popular Religion b. Figurines in Popular Religion c. Figurines as Cheap Clay Objects d. Figurines and the State 3. JPFs as Female Religion 4. Conclusions 3 Neo-Assyrian Figurine Rituals and Archaeological Interpretation 1. Methodological Considerations 2. Previous Scholarly Treatments 3. Overview of Texts in Anatolia and Egypt 4. Historical Validity of the Neo-Assyrian Texts a. Authorship and Temporal Proximity b. Purpose, Intended Audience, and Authorial Competence c. Prevailing Ideology 5. Neo-Assyrian Texts Describing Figurine Rituals 6. Maqlû, Hand of Ghost, and Šep Lemutti Rituals a. Anti-witchcraft Series: Maqlû i. Cause of Evil ii. Ritual Agents iii. Deities and Resources iv. Figurine Make and Design v. Placement b. Magico-medical Texts Dealing with Ghosts and Demons i. Cause of Evil ii. Ritual Agents iii. Deities and Resources iv. Figurine Make and Design v. Placement c. Protective Spirits i. Cause of Evil ii. Ritual Agents iii. Deities and Resources iv. Figurine Make and Design v. Placement d. Summary and Challenges to Figurine Interpretation 7. Conclusions 4 Kenyon’s Jerusalem 1. Challenges in Using the Kenyon Data 2. Cave I a. Cave I in Context i. Cave II and the Northern Building ii. Southern Building b. Stratigraphy of Cave I c. Objects Associated with Cave I d. Conclusions 3. Extramural City Street a. The Data b. Interpreting the Extramural Street Deposit i. Cave I Revisited ii. The Street Assemblage Once Again 4. Area A: Buildings 1–7 and Squares XII and XIII 5. Summary and Conclusions 5 Shiloh’s Jerusalem 1. Challenges in the Shiloh Data 2. Overview of Areas D1, D2, and G a. Area D1 b. Area D2 c. Area G i. Pre-Stratum 12 Figurines ii. The House of Ahiel, Burnt Room, and House of the Bullae iii. Stratum 10 Figurines Without Complete Locus Data iv. Interpretation of Area G Figurines 3. Area E a. Area E East b. Area E West i. Stratum 14 ii. Stratum 13 iii. Stratum 12 iv. Stratum 10 c. Area E South i. Terrace House ii. Drainage Channel 618 iii. Building 1380 iv. Alley 1325 v. Building 1492: the House of the Monoliths vi. Miscellaneous Loci d. Area E North i. Strata 15–14 ii. Strata 12–11 (1) The Pavement Building (2) Building 1927 iii. Stratum 10 iv. Miscellaneous Loci 4. Conclusions a. Chronological Developments b. Spatial and Depositional Patterns c. Assemblages Containing Figurines 6 Terracotta Figurines and Jerusalemite Pottery Production 1. Previous Studies 2. Procedure 3. Results 4. Provenience 5. Petrographic Subgroups and Production Organization a. Figurine Specialists b. Potters, Figurines, and Gender c. Pottery Producers and the State 6. Soil Groups and Typology 7. Chronological Implications 8. Spatial Distribution 9. Final Conclusions 7 The Southeastern Hill and Its Regional Context 1. Conclusions Based on Excavations on the Southeastern Hill a. Reviewing the Major Interpretive Paradigms b. Emerging Picture of Figurine Rituals in the Southeastern Hill 2. Other Sites in the City of David and on the Ophel 3. The Southwestern Hill a. Chronological Patterns b. Spatial Patterns 4. Other Jerusalem Excavations a. Recent Jerusalem Excavations 5. Jerusalem Figurines in Regional Context a. Mevesseret and Moza b. Ramot c. Ramat Rachel d. Gibeon e. Tell en Nasbeh f. Summary of Jerusalem and the Central Hill Country 6. Jerusalem Figurines in Judean Context 7. A Regional Study: Summary and Conclusions 8 Clay and Idols in the Hebrew Bible 1. Methodological Considerations 2. Vocabulary Describing Clay Objects and Potters a. Creation of Humans b. The root yṣr i. yṣr in the Historical Narratives ii. yṣr in Poetic Texts: Lamentations and Psalms iii. yṣr in Prophetic Books (1) Zechariah (2) Isaiah (3) Jeremiah iv. yṣr in Passages Describing Idol Production (1) Isaiah (2) Habakkuk v. Summary of yṣr and Clay Terminology c. ḥereś in Leviticus and Numbers 3. Vocabulary Describing Idols and Idol Production a. ṣelem b. massēkâ c.ʿāṣāb d. ḥārāš e. maʿăśê f. pesel g. tabnît, tĕmûnâ, and semel h.ʾĕlîl i. gilûl, tôʿēbâ, and šiqquṣ j. Summary of Idols and Idol Production in the Hebrew Bible 4. Markets and Potters in the Hebrew Bible 5. Conclusions 9 Style and Iconography 1. Methodological Issues a. Technological Style Elements b. Iconographic Style Elements 2. Pillar Bases a. Stylistic Considerations b. Comparanda c. Meaning and Function 3. Breasts a. Stylistic Considerations b. Comparanda c. Meaning and Function i. Abbreviation of the Naked Female ii. The Naked Female and Protection iii. The Naked Female and Healing 4. Molded Heads a. Stylistic Considerations b. Comparanda d. Meaning and Function 5. Handmade Heads a. Stylistic Considerations b. Comparanda c. Meaning and Function 6. Conclusions a. Chronological and Regional Development i. Trade Relations, Artistic Developments, and Ideology b. Three Dimensionality c. Dissemination of Female Images 10 Figurines in Historical Context 1. The Assyrians and JPFs in Recent Literature 2. Healing Rituals in the Ancient Near East a. Assyrian Figurines and Healing Rituals 3. Assyrian Influence on Judah 4. Greece as a Comparative Test Case 5. Healing Rituals in the Hebrew Bible 6. Protection, Healing, and Intermediaries in the Hebrew Bible 7. Summary and Conclusions 11 Final Summary and Conclusions 1. Figurines as Goddesses 2. Figurines in Popular Religion 3. Figurines and Socio-economic Status 4. Figurines and Females 5. Function of the Figurines 6. Changing Iconography 7. Methodology Revisited Appendix A Table 1: Pinched heads from Kenyon’s excavations Table 2: Unifidentified pinched heads from Boas-Vedder 2001 Table 3: Molded heads from Kenyon’s excavations Table 4: Unidentified molded heads from Boas-Vedder 2001 Table 5: Body and pillar fragments from Kenyon’s excavations Table 6: Unidentified body fragments from Boas-Vedder 2001 Table 7: Total figurine deposition per square on the extramural street in Kenyon Phases 8 and 9 Table 8: Distribution of figurine types in Kenyon Phases 4, 8, and 9 Table 9: Pinched heads from Shiloh’s excavations Table 10: Molded heads from Shiloh’s excavations Table 11: Pillar bodies from Shiloh’s excavations Table 12: Pillar bases from Shiloh’s excavations Table 13: Pillar figurines from Iron II loci in Shiloh’s excavations Table 14: Number of pillar figurines from the Iron II in Area E of Shiloh’s excavations as listed in de Groot and Bernick-Greenberg 2012 and Ariel and de Groot 1996 Table 15: Pillar figurines in Iron Age strata from Area G of Shiloh’s excavations Table 16: Pillar figurines in Area G Stratum 10C of Shiloh’s excavations Table 17: Objects from Stratum 12 fills in E West of Shiloh’s excavations Table 18: Objects from Stratum 10 loci, south of the Ashlar House in Shiloh’s excavations Table 19: Objects from the Terrace House in Shiloh’s excavations Table 20: Objects from Building 1380 in Shiloh’s excavations Table 21: Objects in Alley 1324 in Shiloh’s excavations Table 22: Objects in the House of the Monoliths in Shiloh’s excavations Table 23: Objects in the Pavement Building in Shiloh’s excavations Table 24: Objects from Stratum 12 of Northern Building 1927 in Shiloh’s excavations Table 25: Objects in Stratum 10 walls and surfaces of E North in Shiloh’s excavations Table 26: Pinched heads by stratum and area in Shiloh’s excavations Table 27: Molded heads by stratum and area in Shiloh’s excavations Table 28: Pinched and molded heads by stratum in Shiloh’s excavations Table 29: Pinched heads (as per Kletter 1996 typology) by stratum in Shiloh’s excavations Table 30: Bone and ivory objects in Areas E, D1, D2, and G in Strata 12-10 in Shiloh’s excavations Table 31: Locus types with pillar figurines in E West, South, and North in Strata 12-10 in Shiloh’s excavations Table 32: Percentage of locus types with pillar figurines in Areas E West, South, and North in Shiloh’s excavations Table 33: Objects in fill loci containing pillar figurines in Areas E West, South, and North from Strata 12-10 in Shiloh’s excavations Table 34: Frequency of objects appearing in fill loci containing pillar figurines in Areas E West, South, and North in Strata 12-10 in Shiloh’s excavations Table 35: Objects in floor loci containing pillar figurines in Areas E West, South, and North in Strata 12-10 in Shiloh’s excavations Table 36: Frequency of objects appearing in floor loci containing pillar figurines in Areas E West, South, and North in Strata 12-10 in Shiloh’s excavations Table 37: Petrographic samples organized by sample number Table 38: Petrographic samples from Area G in Shiloh’s excavations and Mazar’s excavations arranged by locus Table 39: Petrographic samples from Areas D1 and D2 in Shiloh’s excavations arranged by locus Table 40: Petrographic samples from Area E1 in Shiloh’s excavations arranged by locus Table 41: Petrograhpic samples from Area E3 in Shiloh’s excavations arrangedby locus Table 42: Rendzina soil samples by area from Shiloh’s excavations Table 43: Motza marl samples by area from Shiloh’s excavations Table 44: Terra Rossa samples by area from Shiloh’s excavations Table 45: Loess samples by area from Shiloh’s excavations Table 46: Non-figurines tested Table 47: Petrographic groups by figurine type from Shiloh’s excavations and Mazar’s excavations Table 48: Petrographic subgroups by figurine type from Shiloh’s excavations and Mazar’s excavations Table 49: Petrographic groups by strata from Shiloh’s excavations Table 50: Petrogrographic subgroups by strata from Shiloh’s excavations Table 51: Petrographic subgroups by figurine type, area, and strata from Shiloh’s excavations Table 52: Petrographic subgroups by structure in Shiloh Area E Table 53: Figurines from Mazar’s excavations by petrographic subgroup Table 54: Petrographic group totals for Area G from Shiloh’s excavations and Mazar’s excavations Table 55: Pinched head variety in Shiloh areas Table 56: Pinched head variation in Shiloh’s Areas E and G of Stratum 10 Table 57: Objects in Area A domestic structures from Kenyon’s excavations Table 58: Head types from Iron II loci in Kenyon’s excavations and Shiloh’s excavations arranged chronologically Table 59: Head types from Iron II loci (excluding the Kenyon street deposit) in Kenyon’s excavations and Shiloh’s excavations arranged chronologically Table 60: Total head types from Iron II loci in Kenyon’s excavations and Shiloh’s excavations Table 61: Known figurines from other excavations at the City of David and on the Ophel Table 62: Figurines from the Jewish Quarter on the southwestern hill Table 63: Chronological breakdown of figurines from Iron II loci in Areas A, W, and X-2 of the Jewish Quarter Table 64: Spatial breakdown of figurines in Iron II loci from Areas A, X-2, and W of the Jewish Quarter Table 65: Figurines from Iron II loci in Area X-2 of the Jewish Quarter on the southwestern hill Table 66: Figurines from Iron II loci in Area W of the Jewish Quarter on the southwestern hill Table 67: Figurines from Iron II loci in Area A of the Jewish Quarter on the southwestern hill Table 68: Figurines from older Jerusalem excavations Table 69: Figurines from Moza Table 70: Figurines from Ramot Table 71: Figurines from Ramat Rachel published in Kletter 1996 and Holland 1975 Table 72: Published and unpublished anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines from Ramat Rachel (courtesy of the Ramat Rachel Archaeological Project) Table 73: Figurines from the Gibeon pool Table 74: Figurines from Tell en Nasbeh published in Kletter 1996, Holland 1975, or McCowan 1947 with dates and plans from Zorn 1993 Table 75: Published and unpublished figurines from Tell en Nasbeh (courtesy of the Badè Museum of Biblical Archaeology at the Pacific School of Religion) Table 76: Structures that contained figurines at Tell en Nasbeh Table 77: Figurine count from Jerusalem excavations (excluding Kenyon, Shiloh, and recent excavations) Table 78: Figurines from all known Jerusalem and hill country excavations(excluding Weksler-Bdolah) Appendix B Characteristics of Petrographic Groups a. Group 1 i. Group 1 Subgroups b. Group 2 i. Group 2 Subgroups c. Group 3 i. Group 3 Subgroups d. Group 4 e. Group 5 i. Group 5 Subgroups f. Group 6 g. Group 7 Table 79: Characteristics of petrographic groups Bibliography Source Index Index of Authors and Subjects