International Review of Research in Mental Retardation: Neurotoxicity and Developmental Disabilities (International Review of Research in Mental Retardation)

Neurotoxicity and Developmental Disabilities is a comprehensive review of the relationship between neurotoxicity and mental retardation. Though individual chapters each focus on a specific toxin, the chapters jointly emphasize that many variables influence the developmental outcomes following exposure to neurotoxicants, including timing of exposure, pattern of exposure, dose, susceptibility, and environmental conditions. Coverage includes the developmental consequences of maternal exposure to methyl mercury, and direct exposure to PCBs and Dioxins, lead, methanol, parental smoking, pthalates and pesticides. Additional chapters review research on environmental agents and autism, and assessment studies of exposure. This thematic volume in the International Review of Research in Mental Retardation begins with forewords by Stephen R. Schroeder, and series editor Laraine Glidden Introduction......Page 1 Ethanol......Page 3 Historical Perspective......Page 4 Clinical Features of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Related Disorders......Page 5 Pattern of Consumption......Page 9 Timing of Exposure......Page 10 Neurobehavioral Profiles Associated with Prenatal Ethanol Exposure......Page 11 Seattle......Page 12 Detroit......Page 15 Atlanta......Page 17 Cleveland......Page 19 Pittsburgh......Page 20 Global Efforts at Defining the Consequences of Fetal Ethanol Exposure......Page 22 A Collective Look at Affected Offspring......Page 23 Ethanol-Induced Brain Injury......Page 25 Methanol......Page 26 Human Infants......Page 28 Studies with the Rodent Animal Model......Page 29 Methanol Exposure from Aspartame (Artificial Sweetener)......Page 30 Methanol Research in a Nonhuman Primate Model......Page 31 Evaluating the Risk from Prenatal Exposure to Ethanol and Methanol......Page 34 References......Page 37 Chemical Properties and Deposition......Page 46 Toxic Mechanisms......Page 47 CNS Effects......Page 48 Other Toxic Effects......Page 49 Human Exposure to PCBs and Dioxins......Page 50 Accidental Exposure......Page 51 Environmental Exposure......Page 52 Neurodevelopmental Effects......Page 53 Behavioral Animal Studies......Page 54 Prenatal Versus Postnatal Exposure to PCBs and Dioxins......Page 57 Neurodevelopmental Interstudy Differences......Page 58 Confounding Variables and Potential Differences in Susceptibility to Effects of PCB and Dioxin Exposure......Page 59 Confounding by Other Neurotoxic Compounds......Page 61 Neurodevelopmental Tests and the Development of Cognitive Abilities......Page 62 Subjects and Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria......Page 63 Cognitive and Motor Abilities at School Age......Page 64 The Development of General Cognitive and Motor Abilities from 3 to 84 Months of Age......Page 65 Neuropsychological Functions......Page 67 Neurotoxic Mechanisms......Page 68 Is Breast-Feeding Safe?......Page 71 Magnitude of Estimated Neurodevelopmental Effects......Page 72 Future perspectives......Page 73 References......Page 76 History and Current Understanding of Lead Effects......Page 85 Pb Exposure in the Context of Environmentally Realistic Conditions......Page 87 Elevated Lead Exposure Preferentially Impacts Low Socioeconomic Status Populations......Page 88 Elevated Stress is Postulated to Underlie the Increased Incidence of Disease and Dysfunction Associated with Low SES......Page 90 Stress Stimuli Activate the Hypothalamic– Pituitary–Adrenal Axis......Page 91 Elevated Glucocorticoids are Associated with Increased Disease and Dysfunction......Page 93 Stress During Development, Sustained Cognitive Deficits, and Alterations in Structure and Function of the Brain and the HPA A......Page 94 Pb Exposure and Deficits in Cognitive Function......Page 96 The Mesocorticolimbic Dopamine System as a Common Substrate for Pb and Stress......Page 98 Experimental Design and Methods......Page 101 Behavior......Page 105 Neurotransmitter Changes......Page 106 Relationships Between NAC Dopamine and Basal Corticosterone Levels......Page 107 Behavior......Page 109 Neurotransmitter Changes......Page 111 Female Adult Offspring Stress Procedures......Page 113 FI Performance......Page 114 Considerations Arising From the Differential Effects of Maternal Pb, Maternal Stress, and Maternal Pb + Stress......Page 117 Stress and Pb can Modify each other’s Effects, and Potentiated Effects of Pb + Stress can Occur......Page 118 Interpretations of Pb + Stress Effects as a ‘‘Reversal’’ or ‘‘Antagonism’’......Page 119 What Parameters of Pb Exposure and of Stress are Important to Interactions?......Page 120 Is Altered HPA Axis Function a Mechanism of Lead-Induced Neurotoxicity and Cognitive Dysfunction?......Page 121 Is Attention Deficit a Behavioral Mechanism of the Cognitive Deficits Associated with Pb Exposure or with Stress?......Page 122 Should Screening Efforts for Elevated Pb Burden Include Maternal Assessments?......Page 123 A Multi-Hit Hypothesis: A Biological Basis for Enhanced Effects of Combined Risk Factors......Page 124 References......Page 125 Mercury......Page 138 Mercury Toxicity......Page 139 Methyl Mercury Toxicity......Page 140 Prenatal Poisoning from Consumption of Methyl Mercury-Treated Seed Grain......Page 142 Prenatal Poisoning from Consumption of Contaminated Seafood......Page 144 Developing a hypothesis about prenatal low-level Methyl Mercury exposure......Page 146 Epidemiological studies of fish-consuming populations......Page 147 New Zealand......Page 149 Seychelles Islands......Page 150 Faeroe Islands......Page 151 Differences Between the Seychelles and Faeroe Islands Studies......Page 152 Governmental Interpretations......Page 153 Exposure Biomarker......Page 154 Concomitant Exposures......Page 155 Outcome Measures......Page 156 What Constitutes a Developmental Disability?......Page 157 How did the NRC and the EPA Determine the Risk to United States Children?......Page 158 Conclusions......Page 159 References......Page 161 Introduction......Page 167 The Family Environment......Page 168 Obstetric Complications......Page 169 Prenatal Infections......Page 172 Bacterial Overgrowth in the Colon......Page 173 Metabolic Imbalance......Page 174 When an Epidemic Is Considered......Page 175 Increasing Prevalence vs Epidemic......Page 176 Environmental Investigation: Brick Township, New Jersey......Page 177 MMR Vaccine......Page 178 Mercury......Page 179 Thalidomide......Page 180 Valproic Acid......Page 182 Misoprostol......Page 183 Interface of Internal and External Environments......Page 184 References......Page 185 What Are Endocrine Disruptors?......Page 191 Hormones and Toxicology......Page 192 Neurobehavioral Toxicity as an Issue......Page 194 Dioxins and Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)......Page 197 Background......Page 198 Behavioral Effects......Page 200 Morphological Effects......Page 206 Implications of Dioxin's Neurobehavioral Effects......Page 207 Exposures and Sources......Page 208 Neurobehavioral Outcomes......Page 209 Phthalate Esters......Page 213 References......Page 216 Introduction......Page 220 Exposure......Page 221 Setting Pesticide Standards......Page 223 Organophosphates......Page 224 Carbamates......Page 226 Effects on Children......Page 227 Summary of What is Known and What Remains to be Discovered......Page 228 References......Page 229 Introduction......Page 232 Prevalence......Page 233 Genetics......Page 234 Low Birth Weight......Page 235 Neurocognitive and behavioral outcomes associated with maternal smoking......Page 237 Animal Models......Page 238 Epidemiologic Studies......Page 239 Adverse Behavior Outcomes in Children of Smoking Mothers......Page 240 Newborns and Preschoolers......Page 241 School-Age Children and Adolescents......Page 242 Cognitive Impairments......Page 243 School Performance......Page 245 Research Implications......Page 246 Summary......Page 247 Referemces......Page 248 Introduction......Page 257 Differences Between a Clinical Assessment and a Research Assessment......Page 258 The Range of Domains That Can Be Assessed......Page 260 Intelligence Tests versus Domain-Focused Tests......Page 262 Infant Assessments......Page 264 Inflation of Type I Error Rate......Page 266 Confounding Bias......Page 267 Effect Modification......Page 270 The Meaning of Small Decrements in Performance on Neurobehavioral Tests......Page 273 Reduced Performance on a Neurobehavioral Test as a Proxy for a Clinically Significant Impairment......Page 274 Dynamic Nosology and the Risk of False-Negative Errors of Inference......Page 276 Implications of the Fact That the Population Distribution of a Characteristic Moves as a Whole......Page 278 Brain-Behavior Relationships......Page 281 Conclusion......Page 286 References......Page 287 Introduction......Page 295 Tests of Cognition......Page 297 Learning......Page 298 Memory......Page 301 Attention......Page 303 Impulsivity......Page 305 Perseveration......Page 308 Vision......Page 311 Audition......Page 315 Somatosensory Function......Page 318 Olfaction and Taste......Page 319 Motor Function......Page 320 Conclusions......Page 323 References......Page 324 Series Editors......Page 332 Contributors......Page 333 Foreword......Page 335 Foreword......Page 337 Preface......Page 341 Index......Page 344 Contents of Previous Volumes......Page 357 Contents......Page 369 Neurotoxicity and Developmental Disabilities is a comprehensive review of the relationship between neurotoxicity and mental retardation. Though individual chapters each focus on a specific toxin, the chapters jointly emphasize that many variables influence the developmental outcomes following exposure to neurotoxicants, including timing of exposure, pattern of exposure, dose, susceptibility, and environmental conditions.Coverage includes the developmental consequences of maternal exposure to methyl mercury, and direct exposure to PCBs and Dioxins, lead, methanol, parental smoking, phthalates and pesticides. Additional chapters review research on environmental agents and autism, and assessment studies of exposure.This thematic volume in the International Review of Research in Mental Retardation begins with forewords by Stephen R. Schroeder, and series editor Laraine Glidden.